OF  THE 
UN  IVLRSITY 
Of  ILLINOIS 

\93.a 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/historyofscienceOOkoon 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING 
IN  ILLINOIS 

BY 

GUY  JINK  KOONS 
A.B.  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
1912 


THESIS 

Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment 
of  the  requirements  for  the 
Degree  of 

MASTER  OF  ARTS 
IN  EDUCATION 

IN 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
1922 


' 


University  of  Illinois  Library 


Manuscript  Theses 


Unpublished  theses  submitted  for  the  Master’s 
and  Doctor’s  degrees  and  deposited  in  the  University 
of  Illinois  Library  are  open  for  inspection,  but  are 
to  be  used  only  with  due  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
authors.  Bibliographical  references  may  be  noted, 
but  passages  may  be  copied  only  with  permission  of 
the  authors,  and  proper  credit  must  be  given  in  sub- 
sequent written  or  published  work.  Extensive  copy- 
ing or  publication  of  the  thesis  in  whole  or  in  part 
requires  also  the  consent  of  the  Dean  of  the  Graduate 
School  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 


has  been  used  by  the  igna- 

tures  attest  their  acceptance  or  tne  above  restric- 
tions. 

A Library  which  borrows  this  thesis  for  use  by 
its  patrons  is  expected  to  secure  the  signature  of 

each  user. 


This  Thesis  by. 


DATE 


. 

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. 


••  •• 


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I 9 2 2 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


ig?.? 


1 HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 
SUPERVISION  BY Toy.  Jink  Troon  a . 

ENTITLED History  of  3 o i enee  T e a c h i ng^-i-a-  II 14  no  is 


BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 


THE  DEGREE  OF 


Ma  s t er 


of  Arts 


•Required  for  doctor’s  degree  but  not  for  master’s 


509399 


table  of  contents 


CHAPTERS 

Page 

I.  Introduction  1 

II.  Early  Development  5 

ill.  Science  instruction  in  the  elementary  schools  10 

IV.  Science  teaching  in  the  public  secondary 

schools  prior  to  1892 20 

V.  Science  teaching  in  the  public  secondary 

schools  since  1893  "...  37 

VI.  Science  work  in  the  normal  schools,  colleges 

and  universities . 48 

VII.  Organizations  promoting  science  teaching  . . 72 

VIII.  Conclusion gr- 

APPENDIXES 

I.  Some  early  school  advertisements  85 

Courses  of  study  in  the  Chicago  high  schools  87 

III.  Legislation  affecting  science  instruction: 

1.  Extracts  from  Law  of  1872  90 

3.  Extracts  from  Law  of  1874  *.  so 

3.  Physiology  and  hygiene  in  public 

schools,  Law  of  1889  . si 

4.  Physiology  and  hygiene.  Law  of  1897.*  92 


• 1 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  IN  ILLINOIS 
I.  INTRODUCTION 

The  teaching  of  science  has  had  an  interesting  and  an 
important  place  in  the  development  of  the  school  system  of  Illi- 
nois. State  Superintendent  John  F.  Brooks  in  a statement  pub- 
lished in  1864  said  that  the  teachers  of  the  state  were  "in  a 
special  manner  characterized"  by  being  "active,  energetic,  vig- 
orous and  progressive  men."  He  further  said  that  "No  improve- 
ment in  educational  methods  has  ever  been  rejected  by  Illinois 
Schoolmasters  because  of  selfish  jealousy,  or  a blind  attachment 
to  ancient  ways.  They  have  been  ready  at  all  times  to  extend  a 
cordial  welcome  to  every  new  truth  that  has  been  proclaimed  by 
the  pioneers  in  educational  progress,  to  encourage  and  applaud 
every  step  in  advance."^  These  characteristics  of  the  early 
educational  leaders  of  the  state  probably  account  for  the  fact 
that  while  the  development  of  science  instruction  in  Illinois  on 
the  whole  reflected  nation-wide  movements  there  were  times  when 
these  movements  "went  further  here  than  elsewhere." 

Beginning  with  the  introduction  of  astronomy  and  natural 
philosophy  in  the  earliest  schools,  by  slow  and  gradual  steps  we 
find  chemistry,  botany,  physiology,  physical  geography,  and  gen- 
eral science  added  and  the  present  courses  in  scientific  subjects 
finally  evolved.  In  most  communities  in  the  state  science  te&ch- 


1.  Brooks,  Manual  of  Instruction,  n.  123. 


2 


ing  began  by  the  teaching  of  natural  philosophy  as  an  advanced 
subject  in  a private  school  or  in  one  of  the  early  free  schools. 

The  sciences  were  first  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
the  state  because  of  their  interesting  and  practical  nature  and 
not  because  of  any  downward  pressure  exerted  by  the  colleges 
through  their  entrance  requirements.  One  finds  but  little  con- 
cerning entrance  requirements  in  the  early  discussions  of  educa- 
tional problems  of  the  state.  In  fact,  Illinois,  because  of  its 
geographical  situation  and  early  pioneer  conditions,  was  freer 
from  the  restrictions  imposed  by  traditions  and  college  entrance 
requirements  than  many  of  the  eastern  states.  In  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  early  private  academies  and  public  high  schools  it 
is  seldom  that  mention  is  made  of  the  fact  that  these  schools 
prepared  their  pupils  to  enter  college.  Interesting  and  practi- 
cal subjects  appealed  most  strongly  to  the  early  pioneer  settlers 
of  Illinois.  In  more  recent  years,  however,  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, through  their  entrance  requirements,  have  done  much  to 
standardize  and  improve  the  high  schools  of  the  state. 

Previous  to  the  organization  of  high  schools  in  the  more 
thickly  settled  communities  classes  in  so-called  advanced  subjects 
were  taught  in  the  early  private  or  free  schools.  The  natural 
sciences  taught  among  these  advanced  subjects  became  a part  of  the 
curriculums  of  the  early  high  schools  after  they  were  established. 
These  high  schools  were  established  through  local  initiative  and 
were  in  no  way  encouraged  or  directed  by  legislative  enactment. 

The  only  legal  justification  for  their  existence  as  public  schools 
was  a broad  interpretation  by  the  State  Supreme  Court  of  the  Act 
to  Establish  and  Maintain  a System  of  Free  Schools.  yhey  held 


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that  a high  school  education  might  properly  he  considered  a part 
of  a common  school  education.  The  selection  of  subjects  to  be 
taught  in  the  high  schools  was  consequently,  up  to  the  year  1889, 
left  entirely  to  the  local  authorities.  Since  1889  physiology  and 
hygiene  have  been  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  the  high  schools 
of  the  state.  The  natural  sciences  because  of  their  strong  prac- 
tical appeal  naturally  constituted  an  important  part  of  the  work 
of  the  early  high  schools. 

At  first  there  was  little  science  instruction  in  the 
elementary  schools.  The  seven  studies  prescribed  by  law  to  be 
taught  in  the  common  schools  were  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and  United  States  history.  In 
the  early  schools  but  little  was  attempted  beyond  the  subjects  pre- 
scribed by  lav/.  In  Chicago  and  seme  of  the  larger  centers  object 
lessons  were  introduced  with  good  results.  Much  elementary  sci- 
ence instruction  was  secured  through  these  object  lessens.  As  a 
result  of  an  increased  interest  in  the  natural  sciences  which  was 
nation-wide  the  passage  of  a lav;  was  secured  in  1872  which  re- 
quired the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences  to  be  taught  in  the 
common  schools  of  the  state.  The  results  obtained  from  the  law 
were  not  wholly  satisfactory.  The  sudden  introduction  of  several 
new  branches  of  study  and  the  lack  of  teachers  prepared  to  teach 
them  probably  account  for  the  lack  of  permanent  result s from  the 
law.  Because  of  the  strong  opposition  developed  the  State  Legis- 
lature in  1874  amended  the  law  in  such  a way  as  to  practically 
nullify  its  effects.  The  natural  science  instruction  and  object 


1.  Richards  vs.  Raymond,  92  111.  612. 


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4 


lessons  gradually  came  to  be  organized  under  the  name  of  nature 
study,  and,  as  such,  elementary  science  instruction  has  largely 
been  carried  on  up  to  the  present  time.  In  recent  years  there 
has  been  a tendency  to  teach  science  facts  in  the  upper  elemen- 
tary grades  and  in  the  lower  years  of  the  high  school  as  general 
science.  In  some  places  it  is  simply  designated  as  science  and 
in  others  as  elementary  science. 


/ 


II.  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT 


Science  teaching  began  early  in  the  schools  of  Illi- 
nois. However,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  just  where  and  when 
the  first  science  instruction  was  given  because  of  the  scarcity 
of  records  concerning  the  early  schools. 

The  first  mention  of  science  instruction  was  found  in 
the  course  of  this  thesis  investigation  in  Reynolds'  history  of 
"My  Own  Times."  He  says,  "In  the  school  near  my  father's,  the 
teacher  was  unable  to  instruct  any  of  his  students  in  the  higher 
branches  of  the  mathematics,  or  the  sciences,  and  I made  arrange- 
ments, with  the  consent  of  my  father,  that  I should  attend  during 
the  winter  of  1806  and  1807,  a good  school,  taught  by  a competent 
teacher.  This  school  was  situated  a few  miles  north-east  of  the 
present  city  of  Bellville,  on  the  land  of  the  present  Mr.  Schrea- 
der.  I have  often  examined,  with  deep  feeling,  the  tumuli  of 
earth  where  this  schoolhouse  once  stood.  I revere  and  respect  the 
site  with  the  same  feeling  as  the  Jews  in  ancient  times  did  the- 
city  of  Jerusalem.  At  this  seminary  j studied  land-surveying  and 
navigation.  I attended  also  to  reading,  spelling  and  writing. 

My  father  procured  me  a surveyor's  compass,  and  I learned  both 
the  theory  and  practice  of  surveying.  My  compass  and  mathemati- 
cal books  I retain  to  this  day.  j studied  various  branches  of 
mathematics,  and  the  sciences,  until  I calculated  an  almanac,  but 
it  never  was  printed."^  The  extract  quoted  above  does  not  make 


1.  Reynolds'  My  Own  Times,  p.  59. 


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, 


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■ 

’ 


6 


clear  just  what  branches  of  science  were  studied  by  Governor  Rey- 
nolds in  this  early  school.  It  is  probable  that  he  here  refers 
to  surveying  and  navigation  as  the  term  science  was  given  a broad 
meaning  in  the  early  days. 

Astronomy  is  the  first  science  of  which  a definite  recoid 
was  found  as  being  offered  in  an  early  Illinois  school.  In  the 
Western  Intelligencer  of  August  26,  1816,  Benjamin  H.  Sturges  ad- 
vertises that  he  has  opened  a school  in  Prairie  de  Rocher  and  pro- 
poses to  teach  "the  most  useful  branches  of  English  education,  viz. 
Writing,  Reading  and  common  Arithmetic"  and  also  in  addition  to 
these,  English  grammar,  geography,  surveying,  astronomy,  and  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages.1  The  advertisement  here  referred  to  is 
evidence  that  Mr.  Sturges  really  opened  the  school  but  apparently 
there  is  no  record  available  showing  that  the  subjects  that  he 
proposed  in  the  advertisement  to  teach  were  really  taught. 

Natural  philosophy  was  the  first  science  taught  in  many 
communities  in  the  state.  This  subject  as  usually  taught  was  a 
sort  of  a general  survey  of  the  field  of  the  physical  sciences. 

The  first  definite  reference  to  the  teaching  of  natural  philosophy 
was  found  in  the  Illinois  Intelligencer  in  an  advertisement  by 
Joseph  Cross  dated  December  9,  1818.  "Mr.  Cross  respectfully  in- 
forms the  citizens  of  Kaskaskia  and  its  vicinage,  that  he  intends, 
should  sufficient  patronage  be  afforded,  to  open  a SCHOOL  in  this 
town,  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  in  Orthography,  Orthoepy,  Read- 
ing, Writing,  English  Grammar,  Arithmetic,  and  Elocution.  Scholars 
who  graduate  in  these  branches  of  tuition,  will  be  instructed  in 
the  rudiments  of  History,  Geography,  Natural  Philosophy,  and  Mathe- 


I.  Western  intelligencer.  August  28,  1816. 


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matics."!  The  files  of  the  Illinois  Intelligencer  show  that  Mr. 
Cross  rented  a house  from  Mrs.  Carey,  south  of  the  church  in  Kas- 
kaskia,  and  began  his  school  about  the  middle  of  January,  1819. 

No  record,  however,  was  found  which  shows  conclusively  that  all 
of  the  subjects  mentioned  in  the  advertisement  were  actually  taught 
in  the  school. 

The  Rev.  J.  M.  Peck  exerted  an  important  influence  on  the 
early  educational  developments  of  the  state.  To  him  is  entitled 
the  credit  for  establishing  the  first  school  in  the  state  to  be 
called  a high  school.  In  1826  he  visited  the  eastern  states  to  so- 
licit funds  to  be  used  for  the  establishment  of  a school  in  Illinois 
While  his  chief  mission  was  to  confer  with  the  authorities  of  the 
Baptist  church  in  the  eastern  states  he  evidently  investigated  the 
high  schools  then  but  recently  established  in  Boston  and  in  New 
York.  On  his  return  he  delivered  a lecture  in  the  State  House  in 
Vandalia  in  which  he  explained  "the  mode  of  education  practiced  in- 
Boston,  the  high  schools  in  New  York,  and  many  public  and  private 
institutions"  and  showed  how  they  might  be  adapted  to  the  "circum- 
stances in  Illinois."1 2 3  Early  in  1527  he  established  at  Rock  Springs 
in  St.  Clair  County  a school  under  the  name  of  the  Rock  Spring  Theo- 
logical and  High  School.  Two  professors  were  selected  for  the 
school:  one  of  Christian  Theology,  the  other  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy.  The  latter  was  to  be  "Principal  of ■ the  High 
School  Department."  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection 
the  important  place  accorded  to  natural  philosophy  in  the  first 


1.  Illinois  Intelligencer , Jan.  13,  1819. 

2.  Ibid, , Dec.  18,  1826. 

3.  Ibid.,  March  24,  1827. 


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organization  of  the  school. 

Gradually  other  branches  of  science  were  added  to  those 
already  taught  and  some  of  the  private  schools  and  colleges  provid- 
ed apparatus  to  be  used  in  illustrating  natural  philosophy  and  chem- 
istry. The  Hillsborough  Boarding  School,  located  at  Hillsborough, 
advertised  in  the  Illinois  Intelligencer,  January  2,  183C,  that  a 
school  would  scon  be  opened  in  that  town  for  females.1 2  Natural 
philosophy  and  astronomy  were  among  the  subjects  to  be  taught  in 
proposed  school.  Illinois  College,  located  at  Jacksonville,  Illi- 
nois, reported  in  1833  that  a philosophical  apparatus  worth  from 
$600  to  |S00  had  been  procured.-'  The  Vandalia  Academy  and  Free 
School  opened  July  31,  1837,  with  an  attendance  of  over  one  hun- 
dred pupils.  Announcement  was  made  that  the  school  would  soon  be 
supplied  with  chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus.  Among  the  sub- 
jects mentioned  as  being  taught  were  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
botajay^^ajid^astronomy.  phis  was  the  first  record  found  of  the 
teaching  of  chemistry  or  botany.3 4  The  Hillsborough  Academy  an- 
nounced, September  14,  1837,  that  it  would  soon  be  provided  with 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Van- 
dalia Academy  and  Free  School  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  chemis- 
try, and  botany  were  mentioned  among  the  subjects  offered.  The 
Young  Ladies  Academy  of  the  Visitation,  located  at  Kaskaskia,  in  an 
advertisement  in  the  Illinois  State  Register,  November  24,  1837, 
announced  that  among  the  subjects  taught  in  that  school  were  phi- 
losophy, chemistry,  and  astronomy. ^ 

1.  Illinois  Intelligencer » Jan.  2,  183C. 

2.  American  Journal  of  Education , Vol.  XXVII,  p.  336. 

3.  State  Register , Sept.  15,  1837. 

4.  Ibid. , Nov.  24,  1837. 


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The  meager  records  of  the  Illinois  schools  of  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  indicate  that  no  particular  em- 
phasis was  given  to  scientific  subjects.  The  work  was  largely 
textbook  work  and  taught  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  other  subjects 
taught  at  that  time.  A very  few  schools  were  provided  with  ap- 
paratus to  be  used  in  illustrating  the  work  as  presented  in  the 
text  books. 


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III.  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

There  was  hut  little  science  teaching  in  the  early  ele- 
mentary public  schools  of  the  state.  In  most  cases  the  work  in 
these  schools  was  limited  to  the  seven  subjects  prescribed  by  law: 
spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and 
United  States  history.  From  time  to  time  many  suggestions  were 
made  recommending  that  the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences  should 
be  made  a part  of  the  work  of  the  common  schools.  Ninian  W.  Ed- 
wards, the  first  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  stated 
in  his  first  report  that  the  teachers  should  have  a "practical  ed- 
ucation, in  which  should  be  included  not  only  what  is  commonly  em- 
braced in  the  common  school  course,  but  a practical  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  in  their  application  to  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life'.’ 
The  State  Superintendent  in  his  report  for  1867-1868  presents  with 
his  approval  a course  of  science  instruction  prepared  for  the 
schools  of  Aurora. 1 This  course  suggests  work  on  the  human  body, 
animals  and  plants  for  the  primary,  intermediate,  and  high  school 
departments.  Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  primary  grades  the  exercises  are  short  and  "full  of  vivacity." 
There  is  no  attempt  in  the  primary  department  to  teach  science  as 
science. 

Object  lessons  were  early  introduced  into  the  Chicago 
schools  and  also  in  some  of  the  larger  city  schools  of  the  state. 


1.  State  Superintendent’s  Report,  1867-68,  p.  3S7, 


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In  1859  according  to  the  report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Chi- 
cago Schools  many  of  the  primary  teachers  had  already  introduced 
"this  class  of  exercises  very  successfully  into  their  course  of 
instruction."^  In  his  opinion  "no  form  of  instruction  is  better 
adapted  to  the  Primary  room,  than  that  which  is  usually  denomina- 
ted 'object  lessons'.  These  lessons  admit  of  endless  variety  in 
their  appplication  to  the  objects  of  common  life,  and  furnish  the 
happiest  and  most  certain  means  of  imparting  useful  knowledge. 

They  educate  the  perceptive  faculties  of  the  pupil,  develop  his 
common  sense,  cultivate  habits  of  careful  observation  and  reflec- 
tion, and  give  a more  ready  command  of  language  than  can  be  ac- 
quired by  any  other  means."  About  this  time  object  lessons  under 
the  name  of  the  "Oswego  Plan"  were  discussed  widely  at  educational 
meetings  and  in  the  school  journals.  We  find  much  time  given  to 
such  a discussion  at  a meeting  of  the  national  Educational  Associ- 
ation held  at  Chicago  in  1863,  and  at  a meeting  of  the  State  Teach- 
ers' Association  held  at  Bloomington.  Object  lessons  found  place 
in  a large  number  of  the  elementary  schools  of  the  state. 

In  some  cases  too  much  emphasis  was  placed  on  the  method 
of  object  teaching  and  it  later  came  somewhat  into  disfavor.  The 
Superintendent  of  the  Chicago  Schools  in  his  report  in  187?  says: 
"It  is  admitted  that  undue  prominence  has  been  given  to  object 
teaching,  and  that  much  of  it  has  been  objectless,  but  the  remedy 
lies  not  in  its  entire  exclusion,  but  in  its  subordination,  and 
in  its  proper  presentation.  Much  of  the  disfavor  into  which  object 
teaching  has  fallen  has  grown  out  of  too  rigid  adherence  to  the 


1.  Fifth  Chicago  Report,  p.  28. 


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'science  phase’  of  instruction.  Too  little  has  been  thought  of 
the  ’art  phase ' . 1 

The  Law  of  1872  providing  for  instruction  in  the  elements 
of  the  natural  sciences  in  the  common  schools  was  a radical  and 
sudden  departure  from  prevailing  practice  at  that  time.  It  was  a 
result  of  the  wave  of  increased  interest  in  the  natural  sciences 
which  about  that  time  was  sweeping  over  the  country.  3ecause  of 
the  sudden  and  great  changes  made  in  the  course  of  study  by  this 
law  before  the  state  could  adjust  itself  to  the  new  conditions 
strong  opposition  led  to  its  amendment. 

’’Large  and  substantial  advantages”  were  anticipated  from 
the  Law.  The  teachers  were  required  to  pass  an  examination  in  the 
natural  sciences  before  receiving  a license  to  teach.  The  Law 
was  passed  in  April  and  the  teachers  must  pass  a satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  time  to  secure  a license  to  teach  before  the  schools 
opened  in  the  autumn.  The  immediate  effect  on  the  teachers  of  the 
state  was  at  least  interesting.  State  Superintendent  Bateman  says 
the  effect  was  ” almost  like  the  breath  of  the  Lord  upon  the  dry 
bones  in  the  valley  of  vision.  - - - And  never  before  has  such  a 
spectacle  been  presented  to  the  people  of  Illinois.  From  the  time 


the  new  law  was  fairly  promulgated  in  April  last,  till  the  schools 
opened  in  the  autumn,  the  whole  state  became  as  it  were  one  great 
camp  of  instruction.  Vacation  plans  were  everywhere  cheerfully 
given  up,  and  through  all  the  unprecedentedly  intense  and  pro- 
tracted dog-day  heats  of  the  past  summer,  great  numbers  of  teachers 
in  every  part  of  the  state  were  assiduously  engaged  in  preparing 


1.  Twenty-third  Chicago  Report,  p.  58. 


1 1 /> 1 ®£ 


themselves  for  examination  in  the  elements  of  the  Natural  Sciences. 
- - - The  common  school  elements  of  society,  so  to  speak,  were 
profoundly  stirred,  everywhere,  and  a free-school  revival,  of  ex- 
traordinary extent  and  power,  was  inaugurated."1 2 3 4  In  a circular 
sent  out  by  the  State  Superintendent  it  was  recommended  that  the 
new  studies  be  taught  "by  the  method  of  oral  lessons , instead  of 
recitations  from  text-books."2  It  was  his  opinion  that  if  the 
teaching  of  the  natural  sciences  was  to  "fall  into  the  old  ways" 
of  merely  memorizing  and  reciting  daily  "so  many  lines  or  pages  of 
a book,"  "the  law  might  as  well  be  repealed,  for  it  will  enhance 
the  very  evils  which  have  so  long  benumbed  and  stupefied  the 
schools. " 

The  new  law  was  such  a radical  step  that  it  called  forth 
much  discussion.  Very  decided  opposition  developed  to  it.  Supt. 
John  H.  Black  of  Adams  County  found  it  difficult  to  see  what  ad- 
vantage would  be  derived  "from  the  introduction  of  the  natural  sci- 

rt  H 

ences."^  It  is  evident  that  in  most  cases  that  time  given  to  the 
sciences  must  be  taken  from  the  study  of  that  which  is  of  much 
greater  practical  importance  to  the  pupils."  He  reported  the  im- 
mediate effect  of  the  law  was  to  produce  a scarcity  of  teachers. 
Supt.  John  P„  Richmond  of  Brown  County  reported  that,  "If  the  sen- 
timent of  the  people  as  at  present  constituted,  is  to  be  considered 
as  conclusive,  the  introduction  of  the  sciences  into  the  schools  is 
uncalled  for  and  unnecessary."4  Supt.  William  T.  Adams  probably 

1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  1871-72,  p.  2S. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  82. 

3 . Ibid. , p , 236. 

4.  Ibid. , p.  238. 


. 


* 


. 


■ ' : : ■ 


14 

with  some  justification  reported  that  it  was  "too  much  at  once."1 2 3 
Supt.  Mrs.  P.  A.  Taylor  of  Alexander  County  reported  that  with  two 
or  three  exceptions  the  teaching  of  natural  sciences  was  confined 
to  the  high  school  of  Cairo.  She  believed  the  law  "beneficial  on- 
ly as  it  raises  the  standard  of  teachers. 

Many  county  superintendents  gave  favorable  reports.  Supt 
J.  E.  Millard  of  Carroll  County  found  the  action  of  the  legislature 
in  raising  the  standard  of  qualifications  for  teachers  was  "pretty 

'Z 

generally  approved."  He  thought  that  it  would  have  been  wiser  to 
discriminate  "more  than  it  does  between  the  requirements  for  first 
and  second  grade  certificates."  Supt.  T.  R.  Leal  of  Champaign 
County  reports  that  "for  a time  some  excitement  prevailed  on  ac- 
count of  the  addition  of  Physiology  and  the  Natural  Sciences  to 
the  course  of  study  in  our  common  schools.  Many  people  thought 
the  new  studies  useless,  and  that  the  plan  was  devided  to  raise 
teachers’  wages  and  benefit  booksellers.  Many  teachers  thought  the 
requirements  too  high  and  calculated  to  drive  them  from  their  em- 
ployment." Time,  however,  brought  about  changes  in  the  sentiment 
of  the  public  and  the  teachers.  Supt.  Leal  finds  later  that  "Be- 
sides the  new  thoughts  and  ideas  thus  obtained  by  the  teachers,  a 
marked  improvement  is  manifested  in  the  methods  of  teaching  the 
’old  branches’.  It  has  infused  new  life  into  our  school  system. 
Teachers  prepare  themselves  more  thoroughly  for  their  work,  and 
the  people  begin  to  see  that  on  Botany  and  Zoology  rests  early 
all  the  material  wealth  of  the  State."  4 Supt.  A.  J.  Mapes  of 


1.  State  Superintendent’s  Report,  1871-72,  p.  240. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  264. 

3.  Ibid. , p . 240. 

4.  Ibid.,  p.  240.  


' 


r 


, 


1 


15 


Edgar  County  found  that  it  struck  from  their  roll  of  teachers  "many 
that  were  drones  in  the  society  of  teachers"  and  that  it  "tended  to 
improve  and  tetter  qualify"  those  still  engaged  in  teaching. Supt. 
H.  S.  Comstock  of  Henry  County  found  "incompetent  teachers  abandon- 
ing the  profession."1 2 3  Supt.  Theodore  Steyer  of  pope  County  reports 
that  the  changes  made  by  the  law  were  "generally  looked  upon  as  an 
imposition  against  the  people,  and  in  favor  of  the  teachers'  higher 
pay.  Since  our  schools  have  been  commenced,  and  wherever  the  sci- 
ences have  been  introduced,  the  people  have  fast  changed  in  favor 
of  the  new  law . " ^ 

The  strength  of  the  sentiment  against  the  law,  however, 
was  so  great  that  at  the  next  session  of  the  State  Legislature  the 
law  was  amended  in  such  a way  as  to  practically  nullify  its  effects. 
The  amended  law  provided  for  two  grades  of  county  certificates, 
first  and  second.  Examinations  in  physiology  and  the  laws  of  health 
and  the  natural  sciences  were  required  for  the  first  grade.  The 
subjects  required  for  the  second  grade  were  orthography,  reading  in 
English,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  modern  geography, 
and  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Since  it  had  been  held  that 
the  subjects  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  the  schools  were  the 
ones  named  in  the  requirements  for  the  lowest  grade  of  teachers' 
certificates,  the  amendment  withdrew  the  natural  sciences  and 
physiology  from  the  list  of  subjects  required  by  law  to  be  taught 
in  the  common  schools.  Since  teachers  could  teach  with  either  first 
or  second  grade  certificates  the  majority  would  naturally  secure 


1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  1871-72,  p.  263. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  271. 

3.  ibid. , p.  286 


. 


. 


. 


. 


; 


16 


only  the  second  grade  which  was  no  advance  over  requirements  in  ef- 
fect previous  to  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1872.  Hence,  the  amend- 
ment practically  nullified  the  effects  of  the  former  act. 

Physiology  continued  to  be  taught  in  many  elementary 
schools;  but  its  teaching  was  not  general.  A la w was  passed  in 
1889  requiring  that  " all  pupils  of  suitable  age  in  schools  of  Il- 
linois, supported  by  public  money  or  under  state  control"  be  taught 
"physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  tc  the  effects  of 
alcoholic  beverages,  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system."*’ 
The  law  made  physiology  and  hygiene  one  of  the  subjects  required 
in  the  examination  for  all  grades  of  certificates  to  teach.  This 
was  the  first  law  in  Illinois  specifically  requiring  that  a par- 
ticular subject  should  be  taught  in  the  schools.  It  had  previously 
been  held  that  the  subjects  required  for  the  lowest  grade  of  teach- 
ers' certificates  were  the  subjects  required  by  law  to  be  taught 
in  the  schools. 

It  was  felt  by  temperance  advocates,  particularly  the 
Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  that  the  la w was  not  sufficient- 
ly effective.  Consequently,  through  their  influence  a new  law  w as 
enacted  June  9,  1897,  which  more  definitely  regulated  the  teaching 
of  physiology  and  hygiene. ^ it  was  prescribed  that  the  nature  and 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics  on  the  human  sys- 
tem should  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  other  divisions  of 
physiology  and  hygiene  as  "thoroughly  as  are  other  branches  in  all 
schools  under  state  control,  or  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  pub- 
lic money."  It  must  be  taught  in  all  grades  to  and  including  the 
first  year  of  the  high  school  for  at  least  ten  weeks  each  ^’•ear. 


1.  Appendix,  p.  43. 

2.  Ibid. , p . 44. 


. 


. 


v 


17 


It  was  prescribed  that  for  the  grades  at  least  one-fifth  of  the 
text-book  should  be  given  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcohol  and 
narcotics  on  the  human  system.  This  law  is  rather  remarkable  as  it 
is  the  first  lav/  specifying  in  just  what  grades  a subject  shall  be 
taught,  the  length  of  time,  what  subject  matter  shall  be  taught, and 
the  proportion  of  the  text  books  to  be  given  to  certain  subjects. 

It  had  previously  been  generally  held  by  educational  authorities 
that  such  matters  were  not  proper  subjects  for  legislative  enact- 
ment but  belonged  to  the  local  school  authorities  for  determination. 
The  lav;  is  still  in  force  in  the  state. 

The  object  lessons  of  the  early  days  gradually  gave  way 
to  a better  organized  course  of  instruction  for  the  elementary 
schools  generally  known  as  nature  study.  The  Cook  County  Normal 
School  was  an  important  center  of  influence  in  the  development  of 
the  nature  study  idea.  Col.  F.  W.  Parker  and  W.  S.  Jackman  were 
the  leading  figures  in  the  movement  in  the  Cook  County  Normal  School. 

Illinois  and  the  nation  owe  a great  debt  to  Col.  F.  W. 
Parker,  the  educational  leader  and  reformer,  for  his  work  in  im- 
proving the  work  of  the  elementary  schools.  It  was  his  aim  to  make 
the  schools  "less  artificial  and  conventional"  by  providing  an  en- 
riched school  curriculum  which  would  appeal  more  strongly  to  the 
interests  of  the  boys  and  girls.  "Geography  and  nature  study  were 
given  commanding  places  in  the  scheme  of  instruction. It  was  his 
theory  that  "Nature  refuses  to  be  viewed  in  bits  and  rags.  A leaf 
or  a twig  would  not  do;  the  child  must  have  the  whole  tree,  with 
the  land  around,  or  still  better  the  forest.  Field  excursions  with 


1.  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


- 


. 


. 


18 


their  wealth  of  observation  were  early  introduced.  Woods,  swamps, 
and  the  lake  shore  were  investigated  with  pencil  or  brush  in  hand." 
Col.  Parker  furnished  the  inspiration  and  an  impetus  which  later 
led  to  the  organized  nature  study  which  in  many  places  became  an 
important  and  integral  part  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum. 

The  work,  particularly  along  the  lines  of  nature  study, 
began  by  Col.  Parker  was  continued  and  improved  by  Wilbur  S.  Jack- 
man.  He  was  brought  to  the  Cook  County  Normal  School  as  a member 
of  the  faculty  in  1889  by  Col.  Parker.  Accepting  Col.  Parker's 
point  of  view,  he  was  able  to  organize  the  nature  study  materials 
in  such  a way  that  they  could  be  more  effectively  used  by  the  regu- 
lar class  room  teachers. 

"Failures  in  nature  study,  failures  that  were,  however, 
prophecies,  were  the  rule,  until  Wilbur  S.  Jackman  in  188S,  under- 
took to  grapple  with  the  problem.  The  idea  of  thorough,  exhaustive 
work  was  abandoned.  The  phenomena  of  the  'rolling  year'  were  taken 
as  the  general  guides;  the  child  was  brought  into  living  contact 
with  nature;  the  subjects  were  adapted  to  different  stages  of  child 
growth;  art  and  nature  were  correlated."  The  type  of  nature  study 
work  developed  by  W.  S.  Jackman  was  adopted  for  general  use  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  Chicago  and  the  surrounding  territory.  It  al- 
so had  an  important  influence  on  the  character  of  the  work  carried 
on  in  the  rest  of  the  state. 

The  normal  schools  of  the  state  have  done  much  to  promote 
the  cause  of  science  instruction  in  the  grades.  The  Illinois  State 
University  at  Normal,  Illinois,  has  made  special  efforts  to  empha- 
size the  importance  of  the  work  and  through  courses  offered  there, 
and  articles  written  by  teachers  in  the  university  for  school  publi- 


• •••  i 


, 


19 


cations  has  exerted  a strong  influence  on  elementary  science  instruc- 
tion throughout  the  state.  The  two  most  important  centers  of  in- 
fluence in  the  field  of  elementary  school  science  work  have  been 
Cook  County  Normal  School,  which  necessarily  has  influenced  most 
the  work  in  Chicago,  and  Cook  County,  and  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University  which  has  exerted  a similar  influence  on  much  of  the 
rest  of  the  state. 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  done  to  promote  science 
teaching  in  the  elementary  schools  the  results  have  not  been  wholly 
satisfactory.  There  is  at  present  no  great  amount  of  enthusiasm 
for  science  instruction  among  the  elementary  school  teachers.  In 
fact,  in  a large  number  of  schools  in  the  state  no  provision  what- 
ever is  made  for  elementary  science  instruction  other  than  the  phy- 
siology and  hygiene  required  by  law.  This  state  of  affairs  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  crowded  condition  of  the  elementary  school 
curiculurn  and  the  lack  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 
Elementary  science  instruction  will  probably  come  back  into  its  own 
when  our  elementary  curiculurn  is  reorganized  and  better  teacher 
preparation  is  required. 


. 


■ 


20 


Jin.  SCIENCE  TEACHING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS  PRIOR  TO  1832. 

The  development  of  science  instruction  in  the  secondary 
schools  forms  an  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of  science  teach- 
ing in  the  state.  In  the  most  of  the  larger  centers  of  population 
in  the  state  some  advanced  subjects  including  some  of  the  sciences 
were  taught  in  connection  with  the  upper  grades  or  classes.  When 
the  high  schools  were  separately  organized  these  scientific  sub- 
jects v/ere  taken  over  b. y them  and  made  a part  of  their  curriculums. 
At  first  these  courses  were  largely  informational  and  taught  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  other  subjects  taught  in  the  high  schools. 
Some  of  the  larger  secondary  schools  were  supplied  with  the  philos- 
ophical and  chemical  apparatus  and  procured  cabinet  collections  of 
specimens  for  illustrative  purposes.  Following  the  leadership  of 
the  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  many  of  them  began  regular 
laboratory  work  in  the  late  1 70's.  However,  such  work  did  not  come 
to  be  generally  followed  until  after  the  report  of  the  Committee  of 
Ten  was  made. 

The  science  courses  offered  in  the  first  free  high  schools 
were  very  similar  to  those  offered  in  the  early  academies  which  have 
already  been  discussed.  In  a preceding  chapter  it  was  noted  that 
natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  chemistry,  and  botany  were  the  sci- 
ences most  often  mentioned  as  being  taught  in  the  early  academies. 

In  the  early  reports  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  scientific 
courses  offered  in  the  early  academies  and  high  schools  differ  but 


. 


» 


. 


' 


. 


■ 


21 


but  little  at  least  in  name  from  the  courses  offered  in  the  early 
colleges. 

There  was  great  uniformity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  cur- 
riculums  in  the  early  high  schools.  Consequently,  a discussion  of 
the  curriculums  of  one  high  school  may  serve  as  a type.  The  Chi- 
cago high  schools  may  well  serve  to  illustrate  development  of  sci- 
ence instruction  in  high  schools.  The  fact  that  complete  sets  of 
the  Chicago  School  Reports  are  available  makes  it  possible  to  trace 
rather  carefully  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  science  instruc- 
tion from  the  establishment  of  the  first  Chicago  High  School  in 
185S  to  the  present  time.  The  changes  taking  place  there  are  to 
some  considerable  extent  typical  of  changes  taking  place  in  the 
science  work  of  other  high  schools  of  the  state. 

The  first  high  school  in  Chicago  was  organized  in  the 
year  1856  with  three  departments:  Teachers',  English  High,  and 

Classical.  Two  years  of  work  were  prescribed  for  the  Teachers' 
curriculum;  three  for  the  English  High;  and  three  for  the  Classical. 
A combination  of  courses  was  arranged  whereby  a pupil  could  com- 
plete both  the  English  pigh  and  the  Classical  curriculums  in  four 
years.1  Science  was  given  an  important  place  in  the  high  school 
from  its  beginning.  The  arrangement  of  subjects  by  terms  and  years 
is  not  shown  in  the  first  printed  report.  However,  the  following 
arrangement  of  subjects  according  to  departments  with  names  of 
text-books  used  helps  in  getting  an  idea  of  the  place  accorded 
to  scientific  subjects  in  the  organization  of  the  school: 


1.  Third  Chicago  School  Report,  p.  28. 


H 

* 


. 


ENGLISH  HIGH  DEPARTMENT 


1.  Preparatory  studies  reviewed,  using  the 

text  books  authorized  in  the  Grammar  School 

v2.  Warren's  Physical  Geography. 

3.  Weber's  Universal  History. 

y 4.  Ancient  Geography. 

5.  Greenleaf's  National  Arithmetic. 

6.  Greenleaf's  Algebra. 

7.  Davies's  Legendre. 

3.  Plane  & Spherical  Trigonometry. 

9.  Mensuration. 

10.  Gillespie's  Surveying. 

11.  Navigation. 

j 12.  Crittenden's  Elementary  Bookkeeping. 

J 13.  Botany. 

y 14.  Burritt's  Geography  of  the  Heavens. 

15.  Higher  Astronomy. 
v 16.  Cutter's  Physiology. 

17.  Tate's  Natural  Philosophy. 

v 13.  Youman's  Chemistry. 

/ 

19.  Geology  and  Mineralogy. 

20.  Rhetoric. 

21.  Logic. 

22.  Wayland's  Political  Economy. 

23.  Principles  of  Government. 

24.  Wayland's  Mental  Philosophy. 

25.  Wayland's  noxa.1  Science. 

26.  Etymology. 


. 


23 


27.  English  Literature. 

23.  Hillard's  First  Class  Reader. 

2S.  Drawing. 

30.  Vocal  Music. 

31.  German  or  French. 

Woodbury's  German  series. 

Fasquelle's  French  Course. 

32.  Recitations  and  Compositions. 

NORMAL  DEPARTMENT 

Nos.  1 « 2 , 3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17, 

13,  19,  20,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  32. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 

CLASSICAL  DEPARTMENT 

Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  14,  16,  17,  26,  28,  30,  32. 
Andrews's  and  Zumpt ' s Latin  Grammars. 

Harkness's  Arnold's  First  and  Second  Latin  Lessons. 
Arnold's  Latin  Prose  Composition. 

Andrews's  Caesar. 

Johnson ' s Cicero . 

Bowen's  Virgil. 

Andrews's  Latin  Lexicon. 

Anthon's  Classical  Dictionary. 

Crosby's  Greek  Lessons, 

Arnold's  Greek  Prose  Composition. 

Felton's  Greek  Reader. 

Boise's  Xenophon's  Anabasis. 


. 

. 


. 


- 


. 


. 


, 


. 


24 


Owen's  Homer's  Iliad. 

Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek  Lexicon. 

It  is  evident  from  the  list  of  subjects  given  that  those 
in  authority  when  the  first  Chicago  High  School  was  organized  be- 
lieved that  a knowledge  of  the  sciences  formed  an  important  part  of 
a high  school  education.  Scientific  subjects  made  up  about  thirty 
per  cent  of  the  work  prescribed  for  those  who  were  preparing  to 
teach.  They  were  expected  in  their  two  years  of  preparation  to 
study  physical  geography,  botany,  geography  of  the  heavens,  physi- 
ology, natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy. 
Science  constituted  approximately  twenty  per  cent  of  the  work  of 
the  pupils  in  the  English  High  Department.  They  were  required  to 
take  all  of  the  sciences  prescribed  for  the  Normal  Department  and 
in  addition  higher  astronomy.  The  pupils  in  the  Classical  Depart- 
ment were  required  to  study  scientific  subjects  to  the  extent  of 
about  fifteen  per  cent  of  their  work.  They  were  re  quired  to  study 
physical  geography  of  the  heavens,  physiology,  and  natural  philoso- 
phy. The  science  requirements  of  these  first  curriculums  of  the 
Chicago  High  School  are  higher  than  the  science  requirements  of 
most  of  the  high  schools  of  to-day. 

The  first  science  courses  were  largely  text  book  courses. 
However,  from  the  very  beginning  there  was  felt  by  the  authorities 
a need  for  apparatus  and  other  supplies  to  be  used  for  illustrative 
purposes  in  connection  with  the  work  in  the  sciences.  At  the  end 
of  the  first  year  following  the  organization  of  the  High  School, 
Superintendent  Wells  in  his  annual  report  says:  "the  most  pressing 
want  of  the  high  school  that  still  remains,  is  a supply  of  suitable 


. 


! 

. 

. 


. 

- 


apparatus  for  illustration  and  experiment  in  the  various  departments 
of  science."1  He  further  states  it  as  his  opinion  that  it  is  "im- 
possible to  give  satisfactory  instruction  in  such  branches  as  Chem- 
istry, Natural  Philosophy,  and  Surveying,  without  the  aid  of  ap- 
paratus." We  are  led  to  infer  from  the  reports  that  in  most  cases 
the  apparatus  was  to  be  used  by  the  teacher  for  illustrative  pur- 
poses and  seldom  by  the  individual  pupils.  In  fact,  in  a later  re- 
port we  learn  that  in  a large  high  school  "not  a hundred  miles  from 
Chicago"  a placard  was  placed  in  the  science  room  which  contained 
the  inscription  "Pupils  must  not  handle  the  apparatus. "3  The  high 
school  here  fef erred  to  is  no  doubt  typical  of  many  of  the  high 
schools  of  that  period. 

In  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  we  find  the  first  outline  giv- 
ing arrangement  of  subjects  by  terms  and  years.  The  outline  is 

'Z 

that  arranged  for  the  Normal  Department. 

NORMAL  DEPARTMENT 


Outline  of  the  Course 


First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

FIRST 

Year 

Arithmetic 
Political  Geog- 
raphy and  map 
drawing 
Grammar 
Algebra 

Same  as  First 
Term 

Physical  Geog- 
raphy 
Botany 

Natural  Philos- 
ophy 

Geometry 

Second 

Year 

Natural  Philos- 
ophy 

Physiology 
Bookkeeping,  ^ 
term 

Chemistry 
Constitution  of 
U.  S.  and  Prin- 
ciples of  Gov't 

Hist,  of  U,S. 
and  outlines  of 
General  History 
Rhetoric 
Astronomy 
English  Litera- 
ture 

Arithmetic,  t 
term 

Geography 
Grammar 
Mental  Philos- 
ophy 

English  Litera- 
ture 

1. 


. 


. 


26 

Reading,  through  the  entire  course. 

Composition,  through  the  entire  course. 

Practice  of  teaching,  through  the  entire  course. 

Singing,  through  the  entire  course,  one  lesson  per 
week. 

Drawing,  through  last  four  terms,  two  lessons  per 
week. 

Theory  of  Teaching,  last  two  terms,  two  lessons  per 
week. 

In  this  outline  the  work  in  science  continues  to  make  up 
about  the  same  proportion  of  the  work  of  the  Normal  Department  as 
it  did  at  the  first  organization  of  the  school,  about  thirty  per 
cent.  In  fact,  in  the  early  years  of  the  nigh  School  history  the 
arrangement  of  the  subjects  in  the  different  departments  changed  but 
little.  It  is  interesting  tc  note  that  in  the  Normal  Department  the 
science  work  is  not  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  different 
terms.  No  science  was  taught  in  the  first  and  second  terms  of  the 
first  year  or  in  the  third  term  of  the  second  year.  Three  sciences 
- physical  geography,  botany,  and  natural  philosophy,  appear  in  the 
work  outlined  for  the  thyfd  term  of  the  first  year.  Three  sciences, 
natural  philosophy,  physiology,  and  chemistry,  were  taught  in  the 
first  term  of  the  seond  year’s  work.  Astronomy  was  the  only  science 
taught  in  the  second  term  of  the  second  year’s  work.  Apparently 
not  mu«K  attention  had  been  given  in  planning  the  outline  of  the 
work  for  the  Normal  Department  to  the  matter  of  distribution,  po- 
sition, and  sequence  of  the  different  branches  of  science. 

For  several  years  the  subjects  prescribed  for  the  differ- 
ent departments  remained  the  same.  Higher  astronomy  was  the  first 
subject  to  be  dropped  from  the  prescribed  list.  A little  later 


. 


. 


i-'x 

. 


- " 


. 


. 


37 

navigation  and  mensuration  were  dropped.  No  explanation  appears 
in  the  school  reports  as  to  just  why  these  subjects  were  dropped. 

The  name  of  the  English  High  Department  was  changed  to  the 
General  Department  in  I860.  The  report  for  that  year  contains  an 
outline  giving  the  arrangement  of  courses  in  all  three  of  the  de- 
partments of  the  school  - the  General,  the  Classical,  and  the  Normal 
The  outline  for  the  Normal  Department  has  already  been  given  as  it 
was  printed  in  an  earlier  report.  These  outlines  are  of  special 
interest  because  of  the  fact  that  they  were  probably  the  first  out- 
lines published  in  the  state  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  work 
of  a high  school. 

HIGH  SCHOOL 


Synopsis  of  the  General  Course 


Year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Arithmetic 

T 

German  or  Latin 

German  or  pat  in 

German  or  Latin 

i 

Descriptive  Geogra- 
phy 

English  Grammar 

Physical  Geography 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Geometry 

II 

German  or  Latin 

German  or  Latin 

German  or  Latin 

Universal  History 

Universal  History 

Universal  History 
Botany 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Mensuration,  Navi- 
gation & Surveying 

German,  Latin,  or 

German,  Latin,  or 

German,  pat in,  or 

French 

French 

French 

III 

Physiology 

Natural  Philosophy 

Natural  Philosophy 

Rhetoric 

English  Literature 

English  Literature 

Astronomy 

Chemistry 

Geology  and  Miner- 
alogy 

German,  Latin,  or 

German,  Latin,  or 

German,  Latin,  or 

French 

French 

French 

IV 

Intellectural  Phil- 
osophy 

Logic 

proral  Science 

Constitution  of  U. S 

Political  Economy 

Political  Economy 

and  Bookkeeping 

:3B 

Reading, during  the  first  and  second  years. 

Drawing,  during  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  years. 
Composition  and  Declamation,  through  entire  course. ^ 


Synopsis  of  the  Classical  Course 


Year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Arithmetic 

Harkness‘  First 

Harkness'  First 

Latin  Reader 

I 

Latin  Book 

Latin  Bock 

Descriptive  Geogra- 

English  Grammar 

Physical  Geography 

Phy 

and  Analysis 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Latin  Reader 

Caesar 

Caesar 

II 

Universal  history 

Universal  History 

Universal  History 
Botany 

Greek 

Greek 

Greek,  Anabasis 

Caesar  or  Cicero 

Cicero 

Cicero 

III 

Physiology 

Natural  Philosophy 

Natural  Philosophy 

Greek,  Anabasis 

Greek 

Greek,  Iliad 

IV 

Virgil,  Eclogues 

Virgil,  Aeneid  and 

Virgil,  Aeneid 

Cicero 

Georgies 

Review  of  Latin 

Latin  Prose 

Latin  Prose 

Reading,  during  the  first  and  second  years. 

Drawing,  during  the  second,  thytd,  and  fourth  years. 


Composition  and  Declamation,  during  the  entire  course. 
Classical  Antiquities,  Military  Affairs,  during  the 
second'  year . Classical  Antiquities,  Civil  Affairs, 
during  the  third  year.  Classical  Antiquities,  My- 
thology, during  the  fourth  year.1 2 


1.  Seventh  Chicago  Report,  p.  130. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  131. 


- 

: 

; 

29 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  position  and  sequence  of 
the  sciences  in  these  early  high  school  curriculums.  The  distri- 
bution of  the  sciences  throughout  the  different  terms  is  better 
than  the  distribution  found  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Normal  Depart- 
ment. Physical  geography  was  the  first  science  taught  and  is  found 
in  the  third  term  of  the  first  year  in  both  the  General  and  the 
Classical  curriculums.  Botany  is  the  second  science  found  in  the 
outline  and  appears  in  the  third  term  of  the  second  year  in  both 
curriculums.  Physiology  is  found  in  the  first  term  of  the  third 
year  in  both  curriculums.  Two  terms  were  given  to  natural  philo- 
sophy, the  second  and  third  terms  of  the  third  year  in  both  the 
General  and  the  classical  curriculums.  Astronomy  is  found  in  the 
first  term  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  General  curriculum.  Chemis- 
try is  found  in  the  second  term  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  General 
curriculum,  geology  and  mineralogy  make  up  a part  of  the  work  of 
the  third  term  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  General  curriculum.  The 
science  courses  as  outlined  were  all  arranged  for  one  term  only 
except  in  the  case  of  natural  philosophy  which  was  given  for  two 
terms.  It  is  evident  that  no  exhaustive  study  of  any  of  the  sci- 
ences could  be  made  in  the  time  alloted  to  them  in  the  printed  out- 
lines. The  work  was  necessarily  of  the  text  book,  memoriter  kind 
which  later  gave  rise  to  the  popular  series  of  science  text-books 
known  as  the  ” ten  weeks”  courses  written  by  J.  Dorman  Steele  and 
which  ex^erted  a strong  influence  in  perpetuating  this  kind  of  work 
in  the  high  schools  of  the  state  and  of  the  entire  nation. 

Three  years  after  the  organization  of  the  High  School, 
the  Superintendent  reports  " a valuable  Philosophical  and  Chemical 
Apparatus  recently  procured  at  an  expense  of  one  thousand  dol- 


. 

, 

. 


. 

. 


. 


§9 


. 

. 


30 


1 

lars."  The  money  needed  to  secure  this  apparatus  was  donated  by 
the  parents  of  the  high  school  pupils  and  by  other  citizens  who 
were  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  school.  A large  oxy-hydrogen 
microscope  was  donated  by  Samuel  Hoard.  It  was  Superintendent  Wells' 
opinion  that  by  these  donations  "the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  school  that  has  hitherto  existed"  was  removed.  The 
Principal  of  the  High  School  reports  that  "the  apparatus  is  now  in 
daily  use  in  the  school." 

It  soon  became  evident  to  the  high  school  authorities  that 
the  time  allotted  to  the  sciences  was  inadequate.  In  1860  Princi- 
pal Dupee  recommended  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  time  given  to 
the  natural  sciences  in  order  as  he  says  "to  make  the  study  of  this 
part  of  the  course  much  more  comprehensive  and  valuable." 

The  Committee  on  Natural  Sciences  appointed  by  the  Board 
of  Education  reported  in  1868  that  they  had  attended  the  public  ex- 
aminations of  the  pupils  in  the  natural  sciences  and  they  found  that 
the  pupils  in  geology  "have  acquired  a pretty  full  knowledge  of  the 
main  principles,  being  able  to  describe  with  correctness,  the  dif- 
ferent geological  formations,  and  the  fossil  remains  which  character*- 
ize  them."  In  their  opinion  the  advantages  of  the  study  of  physi- 
ology "depend  very  much  upon  the  selection  of  topics  made  by  the 
author  in  the  text  book."  They  were  well  pleased  with  the  botany 
examination  and  report  that  "this  beautiful  study  has  received  more 
than  its  usual  share  of  attention,  and  the  Committee  was  highly 
gratified  with  the  proficiency  of  the  pupils.  " 


1.  Fifth  Chicago  Report,  p.  44. 

2.  Fourteenth  Chicago  Report,  p.  17. 


' 


* 


■ 


31 


The  Committee  on  Natural  Sciences  that  investigated  the 
work  in  1873  was  not  particularly  well  pleased  with  conditions  as 
it  found  them.l  Its  report  shows,  too,  a growing  recognition  of 
the  ineffectiveness  of  the  text  hook  method  of  teaching  the  sci- 
ences. The  Committee  reported  that  the  examination  "showed  that 
the  classes  had  been  carefully  instructed  in  the  text  book"  in 
botany,  "but  that  they  had  done  little  in  the  study  of  living 
plants."  It  urged  that  the  pupils  in  this  subject  make  collec- 
tions and  study  the  plants  themselves.  In  its  opinion,  "the 
knowledge  derived  from  the  text  book  alone  is  of  little  worth  be- 
yond enabling  them  to  obtain  rank  in  class  or  to  pass  a verbal 
examination."  The  Committee  reported  the  examination  in  physiology 
"a  lamentable  failure,  discreditable  alike  to  teacher  and  class." 

More  attention  came  gradually  to  be  paid  to  the  sequence 
of  the  different  branches  of  science  as  well  as  to  a fuller  and 
more  extended  treatment  of  those  taught.  In  1873  the  different 
subjects  were  all  arranged  in  one  curriculum.  About  four  and  one- 
half  years  science  instruction  was  offered..  Physical  geography 
and  physiology  made  up  the  science  work  of  the  first  year;  natural 
history  and  botany,  the  work  of  the  second;  physics,  astronomy, 
and  mechanics,  the  work  of  the  third;  chemistry  and  geology,  the 
work  of  the  fourth.  This  sequence  bears  a close  resemblance  to 
that  found  in  many  present  day  high  school  curriculums. 

In  1874  the  Superintendent  reports  that  "the  addition  of 
a working  laboratory  to  the  department  of  chemistry  has  materially 


1. Eighteenth  Chicago  Report,  p.  73. 


. 


■ 


' 


. 


32 


advanced  the  value  of  that  department , and  has  certainly  increased 
the  interest  felt  in  the  department . 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  by  the  superintendent  in 
his  report  of  1875  that  "more  prominence  has  been  given  the  sciences 
and  their  arrangement  in  the  course  is  now  such,  that  each  study 
taken  up,  will  aid  the  pupil  in  mastering  those  that  succeed  it." 

The  science  instruction  described  continued  in  the  Chi- 
cago High  Schools  much  the  same  until  about  1892,  when  modern  labo- 
ratory methods  came  to  be  generally  introduced.  The  Harvard  list 
of  Physics  experiments  was  published  in  1887  and  influenced  greatly 
physics  instruction  in  eastern  high  schools  and  to  a somewhat  less- 
er extent  in  the  mid-west.  This  and  other  attempts  to  unify  and 
standardize  high  school  instruction  finally  led  to  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten  which  proved  to  be  probably  the  most  important 
influence  for  the  modification  of  methods  of  secondary  science  in 
the  whole  history  of  its  development. 

The  fact  that  the  early  public  high  schools  in  Illinois 
were  organized  as  a result  of  local  initiative  resulted  naturally 
in  a serious  lack  of  uniformity.  There  was  need  of  some  central 
authority  to  prescribe  and  to  enforce  the  observance  of  certain 
definite  standards.  The  criticism  of  W,  T.  Harris ? expressed  in 
his  letter  of  transmittal  of  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
applied  to  the  high  schools  of  Illinois  particularly  well. 

"It  has  been  agreed,"  he  said,  "on  all  hands  that  the 
most  defective  part  of  the  education  in  this  country  is  that  of 
the  secondary  schools.  There  is  wide  divergence  in  the  course  of 

1.  Twentieth  Chicago  Report,  p.  81. 

2.  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  1. 


. 


. 


- •'>  Vj  I '}■ 


**  . 


33 


study,  and  the  difference  of  opinion  regarding  what  constitutes  a 
secondary  education  works  injury  not  only  to  the  elementary  schools 
by  setting  up  uncertain  standards  of  admission,  but  also  through  a 
want  of  proper  requirements  for  graduation  prevents  in  thousandBof 
cases  the  continuance  of  the  course  of  education  of  youth  in  col- 
leges and  universities." 

Some  idea  of  the  great  lack  of  uniformity  existing  may 
be  obtained  from  the  fact  that  investigation  showed  "that  total 
number  of  subjects  taught  in  these  secondary  schools  was  nearly 
forty,  thirteen  of  which,  however,  were  found  only  in  a few  schools; 
secondly,  that  many  of  these  subjects  were  taught  for  such  short 
periods  that  little  training  could  be  derived  from  them;  and  third- 
ly, that  the  time  allotted  to  the  same  subject  in  different  schools 
varied  widely.  Even  for  the  older  subjects,  like  Latin  and  algebra, 
there  appeared  to  be  a wide  diversity  of  practice  with  regard  to 
the  time  allotted  to  them. 

That  science  instruction  was  found  to  be  in  a very  un- 
satisfactory condition  is  indicated  in  the  Committee's  Report.  "The 
spirit  of  the  Conferences  was  distinctly  conservative  and  moderate, 
although  many  of  the  recommendations  are  of  a radical  nature.  The 
Conferences  which  found  their  tasks  the  most  difficult  were  the  Con- 
ferences on  Physics,  Astronomy,  and  Chemistry;  Natural  History; 
History,  Civil  Government,  and  Political  Economy;  and  Geography; 
and  these  four  conferences  make  the  longest  and  most  eleborate  re- 
ports, for  the  reason  that  these  subjects  are  to-day  more  imper- 
fectly dealt  with  in  primary  and  secondary  schools  than  are  the 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  4. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  13. 


. 


. 

. 


34 


subjects  of  the  first  five  Conferences."  The  first  five  Conferences 
were  Latin;  Greek;  English;  Modern  Languages,  and  Mathematics. 

The  high  schools  of  Illinois  were  probably  in  a worse 
condition  than  that  described  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
Regent  Peabody  of  the  University  of  Illinois  reported  that  "the 
very  name  (high  school)  often  meant  no  more  than  that  the  school 
was  the  highest  in  the  community  and  that  there  were  many  district 
schools  offering  better  instruction  than  some  that  claimed  secondary 
grade. The  writer  attended  and  graduated  from  one  of  the  high 
schools  of  this  period.  It  was  located  in  a small  town.  The  high 
school  consisted  of  three  years  work,  the  first  of  which  was  given 
over  entirely  to  the  common  branches.  The  sciences  studied  were 
physiology,  botany,  zoology,  physics,  and  chemistry.  The  text 
books  used,  except  in  the  case  of  botany,  were  Steele’s  Ten  Weeks 
Courses  in  each  of  the  subjects  named.  Gray's  Botany  with  Manual 
was  the  text  in  that  subject.  The  work  in  science  was  largely 
text  book  and  pursued  in  much  the  same  way  as  any  other  subjects  in 
the  curriculum.  Occasionally  the  teacher  would  perform  some  ex- 
periment before  the  class  for  the  purpose  of  demonstration.  It  was 
seldom  that  pupils  were  permitted  to  handle  the  apparatus.  The 
standards  required  for  graduation  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
the  writer  completed  the  required  amount  of  work  and  graduated  from 
this  high  school  after  twelve  months  attendance.  There  was  in  the 
period  under  discussion  a need  of  some  agency  to  set  definite  stand- 
ards for  the  high  schools  and  to  possess  sufficient  authority  to  com- 
pel their  observance. 


1.  Nevins,  History  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  p.  124. 


. 

..  .•  . 'pit  p:  :c  . 


. 


35 


Little  did  the  university  of  Illinois  authorities  dream 
when  they  first  adopted  a system  of  accrediting  high  schools  of 
the  important  part  such  a system  was  to  play  in  raising  the  stand- 
ards and  in  bringing  about  uniformity  in  the  work  of  the  high 
schools. 

A plan  for  accrediting  high  schools  was  first  adopted 
by  the  University  of  Illinois  authorities  in  187?.  The  plan  pro- 
vided “that  the  faculty  may  designate  as  accredited  high  schools 
whose  pupils  shall  be  admitted  to  the  University  upon  their  cer- 
tificate of  graduation,  such  high  schools  as  they  may  find  upon  ex- 
amination of  their  facilities  for  teaching  and  methods  and  course 
of  instruction  giving  their  pupils  such  preparation  as  is  required 
for  admission  to  the  University.”1 2 3 4  Two  kinds  of  high  schools  were 
designated.  One  kind  was  called  examir.ing  high  school.  One  ex- 
amining high  school  was  named  for  each  county  in  the  state.  The 
examinations  given  by  these  high  schools  were  accepted  in  lieu  of 
the  entrance  examination  given  by  the  University.  The  examining 
high  schools  were  discontinued  in  1884.  The  other  kind  of  high 
schools  was  made  up  of  schools  whose  pupils  were  admitted  without 
examination.  The  first  high  school  to  be  accredited  was  the  Prince 
ton  Township  High  School.0  In  1880  the  number  of  accredited  high 
schools  had  increased  to  twenty- two.  In  1887  two  classes  of  ac- 
credited high  schools  were  distinguised  - fully  accredited  and  par- 
tially accredited  schools.'1  Pupils  from  the  partially  accredited 


1.  State  Superintendent's  Report  86,  p.  CLII. 

2.  Nevins,  History  of  the  university  of  Illinois,  p.  88. 

3.  Alumni  Record,  1913,  p.  13. 

4.  Nevins,  History  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  p.  88. 


. 


' 

■ 


. 

. 


36 


schools  were  admitted  only  to  the  Colleges  of  Agriculture,  Engineer- 
ing, and  Natural  Science.  According  to  President  Peabody,  the  early 
accrediting  system  adopted  was  of  little  help  to  the  University. 

Ke  reports  that  during  a period  of  seven  years  156  students  had 
been  admitted  on  high  school  diplomas  and  that  of  that  number  118 
came  from  three  high  schools  located  "within  sight  of  the  towers 
of  the  University."  In  the  early  days  of  the  accrediting  system 
different  members  of  the  University  faculty  v<rere  designated  to 
visit  and  report  on  the  high  schools  requesting  such  inspection. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  definite  standards  to  be  required  of  high 
schools  were  not  carefully  worked  out  and  only  a small  number  of 
high  schools  were  on  the  accredited  list,  it  is  evident  that  the 
University  accrediting  system  was  not  the  potent  influence  in 
helping  the  schools  to  develop  and  maintain  high  standards  of  ef- 
ficiency that  it  afterwards  became. 


. . 


37 


V SCIENCE  TEACHING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  SINCE  1892 

The  period  prior  to  1892  was  characterized  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  high  school  as  a definite  part  of  the  public  school 
system  and  by  a rapid  growth  in  the  number  of  high  schools  in  the 
state.  There  was  little  uniformity  as  to  curriculum  arrangement, 
length  of  term,  preparation  of  teachers,  equipment,  or  requirements 
for  graduation.  There  was  no  central  agency  with  sufficient  influ- 
ence to  bring  about  general  uniformity  of  standards  necessary  for 
efficient  work.  The  high  schools  of  this  period  certainly  were  not 
dominated  by  college  entrance  requirements.  An  accrediting  system 
had  already  been  provided  by  the  State  university  as  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter.  However,  it  had  not  yet  become  a strong  fac- 
tor in  the  raising  of  high  school  standards. 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  marks  the  beginning  of 
definite  and  uniform  standards  for  high  schools.  This  report  was. 
one  of  the  strongest  influences  in  crystallizing  sentiment  as  to 
just  what  standards  should  be  required  of  secondary  schools.  There 
was  more  need  of  this  sort  of  thing  in  science  instruction  probably 

than  in  most  of  the  other  fields.  The  Committee  recommended  four 

jj  1 

cu^iculums:  classical,  Latin-scientific,  modern  languages,  and 

English.  Physical  geography  was  recommended  for  all  in  the  first 
year;  botany  or  zoology,  for  the  second  year  in  all  but  the  classi- 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  48. 


. 


. 


. 


■ 


. 


38 


cal;  the  classical  offered  no  science  in  the  third  year;  the  other 
three  recommended  astronomy,  one-half  year,  and  meteorology,  one- 
half  year  in  the  third  year;  all  offered  chemistry  in  the  fourth 
year;  Latin-scientific,  modern  languages,  and  English  offered  ge- 
ology or  physiography,  one-half  year,  and  anatomy,  physiology  and 
hygiene,  one-half  year  in  the  fourth  year.  The  recommendation^ 
of  the  Committee  as  to  the  place  for  each  science  was  not  generally 
followed.  However,  the  important  result  of  their  recommendations 
was  that  longer  and  more  thorough  courses  supplanted  the  short  in- 
formational courses  which  were  characteristic  of  the  preceding 
period.  The  Committee  suggested  that,  "If  every  subject  studied 
at  all  is  to  be  studied  thoroughly  and  consecutively,  every  subject 
must  receive  an  adequate  time-allotment.  If  every  subject  is  to 
provide  a substantial  mental  training  it  must  have  a time-allotment 
sufficient  to  produce  that  fruit.”  Since  final  selection  of  sub- 
jects was  to  be  made  by  or  on  behalf  of  the  individual  pupil,  "all 
the  subjects  between  which  choice  is  allowed  should  be  approximate- 
ly equivalent  to  each  other  in  seriousness,  dignity,  and  efficacy. 
Therefore,  they  should  have  approximately  equal  time-allotments." 

The  recommendations  of  the  Committee  did  much  to  bring 
about  the  introduction  of  regular  laboratory  work  in  connection 
with  science  instruction.  Laboratory  work  had  been  introduced  in 
connection  with  science  work  in  the  colleges  for  some  time.  Some 
of  the  larger  high  schools  were  making  use  of  it.  However,  its 
use  among  high  schools  was  not  widespread. 

According  to  the  Committee,^  "Laboratory  subjects  should 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  50. 


. 


' 


. 

. 


. 


39 

have  double  periods  whenever  that  prolongation  is  posssible.  - - - 
Laboratory  work  requires  mors  consecutive  time  than  the  ordinary 
period  of  recitation  affords;  so  that  an  hour  and  a half  is  about 
the  shortest  advantageous  period  for  a laboratory  exercise.”  It 
was  recommended,  "That  in  secondary  schools  physics  and  chemistry 
be  taught  by  a combination  of  laboratory  work,  text-book,  and  tho- 
rough didactic  instruction  carried  on  conjointly,  and  that  at  least 
one-half  of  the  time  devoted  to  these  subjects  be  given  to  labora- 
tory work."  "That  laboratory  work  in  physics  should  be  largely  of 
a quantitative  character."  "That  careful  note-book  records  of  the 
laboratory  wonk  in  both  physics  and  chemistry  should  be  kept  by  the 
student  at  the  time  of  the  experiment "That  the  laboratory  work 
should  have  the  personal  supervision  of  the  teacher  at  the  labora- 
tory desk."  "That  in  the  opinion  of  this  Conference  it  is  better  to 
study  one  subject  as  well  as  possible  during  the  whole  year  than  to 
study  two  or  more  superficially  during  the  same  time." 

The  emphasis  placed  by  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  laboratory 
work  as  a vital  part  of  science  instruction  soon  resulted  in  the 
reorganization  of  the  science  courses  in  the  high  schools  with  more 
adequate  provision  for  laboratory  work.  This  reorganization  was 
hastened  and  aided  by  the  action  of  various  accrediting  agencies 
in  requiring  adequate  laboratory  facilities  as  a prerequisite  in 
the  accrediting  of  work  in  science. 

The  larger  high  schools  were  naturally  the  first  to  take 
up  the  new  method  of  science  instruction.  From  the  Chicago  School 
Report1  we  learn  that  in  1893,  "The  West  Division  High  School  has 


1.  Thirty-Eighth  Chicago  School  Report,  p.  50. 


k 


* 


40 


been  fully  equipped  during  the  year  for  practice  in  physics,  chem- 
istry and  biology.  The  North  and  South  Division  High  Schools  are 
still  poorly  prepared  for  any  proper  laboratory  work.  There  has 
been  an  effort  to  make  the  study  of  all  sciences  as  practical  as 
possible.  Classes  with  their  teachers  have  frequently  made  ex- 
cursions into  the  country  in  their  investigations  in  geology,  zool- 
ogy and  botany.  The  teachers  have  during  the  summer  vacations  se- 
cured specimens  which  have  been  used  for  dissection  in  the  study 
of  animal  life.  Aquariums  have  been  supplied  to  some  of  the  high 
schools  where  the  characteristics  of  water  animals  are  studied. 
Drawing  is  very  freely  used  for  illustration  in  the  sciences  and 
other  studies." 

The  next  year,  18S3,  the  Chicago  Superintendent  reports 
that,  "The  laboratory  method  of  work  is  adopted;  the  pupils  ob- 
serve the  object,  and  write  notes  of  their  observations,  following 
an  outline.  The  microscope  is  used  and  dissection  is  practiced  to 
a certain  extent.  Drawings  are  frequently  made  to  illustrate  parts 
and  organs.  Written  papers  are  finally  presented  upon  each  topic 
studied,  showing  the  results  of  the  pupils’  observations  and  con- 
clusions."^ In  1895  we  are  assured  by  the  Chicago  Superintendent 
that  "The  days  of  the  old  textbook  regime,  when  the  teacher  with 
book  in  hand  asked  the  questions,  and  the  pupil,  with  no  adequate 

p 

conception  of  the  theme,  attempted  to  answer  them,  are  past." 

It  is  reported  that  nearly  all  of  the  Chicago  high  schools  are 
supplied  with  laboratories  for  the  "natural  method  of  teaching 


1.  Thirty-ninth  Chicago  Report,  p.  62. 

2.  Forty-first  Chicago  Report,  p.  93. 


* 

I 


. 


'1 


: 


* 


. 

. 

. 


41 


sciences."  It  is  urged  that  the  "pupil  should  handle  the  appara- 
tus and  perform  the  experiments  for  themselves,  that  they  see  with 
their  own  eyes,  prove  by  their  own  manipulations,  and  therefore 
understand  the  laws  and  principles  which  the  printed  page  either 
alone  or  when  aided  by  experiment  wholly  conducted  by  the  teacher, 
does  not  elucidate." 

After  definite  standards  for  science  instructions  have 
been  determined  it  is  necessary  that  means  be  provided  in  order  to 
see  that  they  are  generally  adopted.  Some  high  schools  would,  with- 
out doubt,  promptly  accept  proposed  standards.  However,  to  secure 
general  acceptance  some  agency  must  be  provided  that  will  furnish 
a strong  motive  for  meeting  such  high  requirements.  The  accredit- 
ing system  of  the  State  University,  the  North  Central  Association 
system  of  accrediting,  and  the  plan  for  Recognized  Schools  of  the 
State  Department  of  Public  Instruction  have  served  to  secure  a gen- 
eral acceptance  of  high  standards  for  science  instruction  through- 
out the  state. 

The  accrediting  system  of  the  State  University  has  proba- 
bly been  the  most  effective  influence  in  raising  the  standards  and 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  high  schools  of  the  state.  Atten- 
tion has  already  been  called  to  the  adoption  of  the  system  and  its 
early  workings.  In  the  early  days  the  visits  and  inspections  were 
made  by  the  President  of  the  University  or  by  some  member  of  the 
faculty.  As  the  number  of  high  schools  increased  and  the  work  of 
the  University  expanded  this  plan  was  found  to  be  unsatisfactory. 
President  Draper  within  a few  years  after  assuming  his  duties  as 
president  reported  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  that,1  » The  time  has 

1. Eighteenth  Report  of  Trustees,  U.  of  111.,  p.351. 


. 


. 


.1 


. 


42 


come  when  it  seems  imperatively  necessary  that  the  University 
should  employ  a man  whose  special  duty  it  shall  be  to  visit  high 
schools  with  a view  to  placing  them  or  continuing  them,  upon  the 
accredited  list  of  the  university , «»  He  found  the  work  when  per- 
formed by  regular  members  of  the  faculty  seriously  interfered 
with  their  regular  work  and  too  there  was  much  variety  of  judg- 
ment in  passing  upon  the  merits  of  the  different  schools  applying 
for  inspection.  He  saw  the  situation  from  the  high  school  point 
of  view  and  somewhat  prophetically  suggested  that  such  a plan 
"would  have  a stimulating  and  helpful  effect  upon  the  high  school 
work  throughout  the  state."  The  results  have  fully  justified  the 
wisdom  of  President  Draper's  plan,  and  the  accrediting  system  as 
administered  by  the  High  School  Visitor  has  been  "a  most  powerful 
lever  in  raising  the  standards  of  the  work  done"  in  the  high 
schools  of  the  state.  Three  men  have  held  the  position  of  High 
School  Visitor  since  the  inauguration  of  the  plan  in  1S9S:  John 

Edward  McGilvrey,  1896-1899;  Stratton  D.  Brooks,  1899-1902;  and 
H.  A.  Hollister  from  1902  to  the  present  time. 

The  High  School  Visitor  has  adopted  the  standards  pro- 
posed by  the  Committee  of  Ten  and  revised  by  the  Committee  of 
Twelve  and  succeeding  committees  as  the  basis  of  the  requirements 
in  the  field  of  science  as  well  as  other  fields  of  instruction. 
The  first  High  School  Manual  published  by  the  High  School  Visitor 
set  forth  the  standards  to  be  met  by  schools  wishing  to  have 
their  work  accredited:1 

1.  There  must  be  at  least  36  weeks  of  actual 
school  work  in  the  school  year. 


1.  High  School  Manual,  1906-1907,  p.  18. 


„ 


. 

: 


I • : 


43 


2.  Four  teachers  must  be  employed  in  the  grades 
below  the  high  school. 

3.  Two  or  more  teachers  must  be  employed  to  give 
full  time  to  the  high  school  work. 

4.  Recitation  periods  must  be  at  least  forty  min- 
utes in  length. 

5.  Teachers  must  be  well  prepared  for  the  work 
they  undertake  to  teach. 

6.  Text  books  must  be  well  chosen. 

7.  Adequate  equipment  in  the  way  of  libraries 
and  laboratories  must  be  provided. 

The  Manual  recognizing  the  importance  of  laboratory  instruction 
says:  ’’The  laboratory  is  as  essential  as  any  other  recitation  room 
and  should  not  be  relegated  to  the  cellar  or  to  the  attic  if  this 
can  be  avoided.  It  should  be  provided  with  suitable  tables  and 
chairs.”  Definite  recommendations  as  to  apparatus  and  other  equip- 
ment needed  for  the  different  sciences  were  included.  With  but 
little  change  these  recommendations  have  stood  as  the  standards  for 
accrediting  for  twenty  years.  The  latest  standards  in  addition  to 
those  named  above  require:  That  the  financial  condition  of  dis- 

trict be  satisfactory;  consecutive  double  periods  for  all  unpre- 
pared work  such  as  laboratory,  shop,  drawing. ^ There  must  be  three 
or  more  teachers,  including  superintendent  or  principal,  devoting 
full  teaching  time  to  high  school  work.  Definite  outlines  and 
suggestions  for  the  different  subjects  printed  in  the  High  School 
Manual  assist  the  high  schools  to  keep  the  work  up  to  the  high 
standards  set. 

Many  of  the  larger  high  schools  of  the  state  have  been 
influenced  by  the  requirements  of  the  North  Central  Association  of 


1.  High  School  Manual,  1930,  p.  12. 


- 


. 


■ 


' 


44 


Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  Its  standards  are  somewhat  higher 
than  those  set  by  the  State  University.  In  1904,  when  the  first 
list  of  accredited  schools  was  prepared  for  the  North  Central  As- 
sociation, the  following  standards  were  applied: 

1.  Preparation  of  teachers  of  academic  subjects 
included  graduation  from  North  Central  Association  col- 
lege or  equivalent. 

2.  Teachers  should  teach  but  five  periods  per 
day.  All  teaching  more  than  six  were  rejected. 

3.  Adequate  library  and  laboratory  facilities 
must  be  provided. 

4.  Maximum  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  thirty 
based  on  enrollment. 

5.  There  must  be  five  teachers  exclusive  of  the 
superintendent . 

In  1922  the  North  Central  Association  requirements  in- 
clude : 

1.  Satisfactory  hygienic  conditions. 

2.  Adequate  library  and  laboratories. 

3.  Fifteen  units  required  for  graduation;  school 
year,  36  weeks. 

4.  Efficiency  of  instruction,  acquired  habits 
of  thought  and  study,  general  intellectual  and  moral 
tone  of  school  are  considered  as  paramount  factors. 

5.  Adequate  salaries  paid  teachers. 

6.  Teachers  of  academic  subjects  graduates  of 
of  approved  colleges,  with  eleven  hours  education 
credits.  After  September  1,  1924,  fifteen  hours 
will  be  required. 

7.  Teachers  teach  not  more  than  six  periods 
daily.  Minimum  length  of  period  forty  minutes  ex- 
clusive of  time  of  passing  of  classes. 

8.  Maximum  ratio  25  pupils  per  teacher  based 
on  average  attendance.  No  teacher  should  have  more 
than  150  student-recitation  periods  per  day. 


. 


. 

. 


* 


* 


■ 


' 


. 


* 


TV. 


45 


There  has  been  a gradual  change  in  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  presented  in  the  high  school  science  courses.  In  the 
early  days  it  was  largely  what  was  then  known  as  "pure  science'.' 

In  the  nineties  a strong  tendency  developed  to  emphasize  the  prac- 
tical applications  of  scientific  principles.  All  sciences  now  show 
both  in  the  text  books  and  in  the  methods  of  instruction  a strong 
practical  bent.  When  the  laboratory  method  was  first  introduced 
into  high  schools  the  courses  in  many  cases  were  almost  reproduc- 
tions of  college  courses  and  were  not  adapted  to  pupils  of  high 
school  age.  This  was  particularly  true  of  physics.  However,  text 
books  and  courses  have  been  reorganized  and  the  material  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  pupils  of  high  school  age. 

The  sequence  of  science  courses  has  not  changed  greatly 
in  the  last  twenty  years.  The  prevailing  arrangement  has  been 
somewhat  as  follows:  first  year,  physiology  and  physical  geography, 
one-half  year  each;  second  year,  zoology  and  botany,  one-half  year 
each;  thir  year,  chemistry;  fourth  year,  physics.  Recently  there 
has  been  a decided  tendency  to  substitute  general  science  in  the 
first  year  instead  of  physiology  and  physical  geography. 

General  science  came  into  the  curriculum  somewhat  as  a 
protest  against  the  dry  and  formal  routine  into  which  much  of  the 
science  work  had  fallen  after  the  introduction  of  laboratory  meth- 
ods of  instruction.  Laboratory  work  in  the  hands  of  a skillful 
teacher  may  make  the  subject  matter  of  science  intensely  interest- 
ing. However,  as  it  is  often  carried  on  no  permanent  results  are 
secured  and  the  work  even  becomes  distasteful  to  the  pupils.  To 
John  Calvin  Hanna,  Principal  of  the  Oak  Park  Township  High  School, 


. 


. 


: 


46 

is  due  credit  for  introducing  what  was  probably  the  fi^st  general 
science  course  in  the  state.  Mr.  Hanna  says,-^-  "Here  and  there 
rebellion  arose  against  this  system  of  science  instruction.  The 
writer  was  one  of  those  rebels  and  his  rebellion  was  also  against 
the  system  of  confining  for  a year  the  attention  of  the  beginner  in 
science  study  to  the  narrow  limits  of  one  or  another  of  the  fields 
into  which  scientific  phenomena  are  for  many  purposes  very  properly 
grouped. " 

Uj-frsds 

He  introduced  a course  known  as  Science  I which ^prescribed 
for  all  freshmen  and  was  a prerequisite  for  later  elective  science 
courses.  It  was  his  idea  that  the  course  would  accomplish  the  fol- 
lowing purposes: 

1.  Introduce  the  pupil  to  a study  of  natural  phe- 
nomena and  laws  adapted  to  his  maturity. 

2.  Train  him  to  think  accurately  and  form  just 
conclusions  from  data  gathered. 

3.  Furnish  useful  information. 

4.  Prepare  for  further  systematic  science  study. 

5.  Conform  to  Illinois  law  for  teaching  physi- 
ology and  hygiene  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school. 

' General  science  is  now  widely  taught  in  the  high  schools  of  the 
state  and  since  it  may  now  be  accredited  at  the  University  most 
high  schools  will  probably  introduce  it  into  the  curriculums. 

The  "project  method"of  science  teaching  is  noe  of  the  lat- 
er movements  in  this  field.  There  is  a wide  variance  of  opinion 
as  to  just  what  this  method  is  and  a correspondingly  wide  differ- 
ence in  its  practice.  Stevenson  probably  gave  the  best  definition 


1.  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  1916,  p.  210. 


'* 


. 


. 


. 


. 


. 


. 


I £ : 


of  it  when  he  said  that  it  was  the  carrying  on  of  an  experiment 
under  actual  conditions.  The  project  method  when  properly  ap- 
plied has  resulted  in  increased  interest  and  efficiency.  Pro- 
bably its  most  effective  use  has  been  in  connection  with  Smith- 
Hughes  agriculture  work. 


48 


VI.  SCIENCE  TEACHING  IN  COLLEGES,  NORMAL  SCHOOLS, 

AND  UNIVERSITIES 

The  science  courses  offered  in  the  early  colleges  of 
the  state  were  very  much  alike.  Among  the  subjects  listed  as  be 
ing  taught  in  these  early  schools  we  find  mentioned  natural  phi- 
losophy, chemistry,  geology,  and  in  some  cases  mineralogy.  The 
work  in  these  subjects,  as  in  the  secondary  schools,  was  largely 
of  an  informational  character  and  the  methods  of  teaching  them 
differed  but  little  from  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  the  oth- 
er subjects  in  the  curriculum.  The  most  of  the  early  colleges 
boast  of  the  fact  that  they  were  equipped  with  a philosophical 
and  chemical  apparatus.  About  1850  the  museum  or  cabinet  of 
specimens  came  to  be  considered  an  important  part  of  the  equipment 
necessary  for  science  teaching.  The  work,  however,  continued  to 
be  largely  informational  and  the  apparatus  and  cabinet  of  specimens 
were  used  to  illustrate  the  regular  class  work.  The  laboratory 
method  of  teaching  science  was  introduced  into  the  state  in  the 
early  70' s.  Professor  S.  A.  Forbes  first  used  the  type  method 
of  laboratory  instruction  in  his  classes  in  zoology  at  Normal. 

He  had  begun  this  method  of  teaching  "before  Huxley's  Laboratory 
Guide  appeared  and  revolutionized  the  teaching  of  zoology."  The 
laboratory  method  quickly  spread  to  the  other  sciences  and  has 
continued  to  be  considered  an  essential  part  of'  all  kinds  of  sci- 
ence instruction.  No  college  of  today  would  be  considered  a stand- 
ard college  which  offered  science  instruction  and  did  not  provide 


49 

adequate  laboratory  facilities  for  such  science  courses  as  were 
offered. 

Dr.  David  Starr  Jordan’s  experience  in  an  Illinois  col- 
lege prior  to  the  wave  of  increased  interest  in  scientific  sub- 
jects that  swept  over  the  state  in  the  early  70' s gives  some  in- 
teresting information  concerning  the  status  of  the  sciences  and 
the  science  teacher  in  the  early  colleges  of  Illinois.  He  says, 

"I  was  called  from  New  York  to  such  a chair  (natural  history)  in 
a well-known  college  of  Illinois.  As  professor  of  natural  sci- 
ence I taught  zoology,  botany,  geology,  physiology  as  a matter  of 
course;  physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  natural  theology,  and 
evidences  of  Christianity,  because  there  was  no  one  else  to  take 
them.  There  finally  fell  to  me  the  literary  work  of  the  college — 
the  orations,  essays,  declamations.  I tried  at  one  time  to  es- 
tablish a little  laboratory  in  chemistry,  but  met  with  a sharp 
rebuke  from  the  board  of  trustees,  who  directed  me  to  keep  the 
students  out  of  what  was  called  the  cabinet,  for  they  were  likely 
to  injure  the  apparatus  and  waste  the  chemicals. 

Shurtleff  College,  the  pioneer  Illinois  college,  at  its 
first  organization,  as  has  already  been  noted,  gave  special  promi- 
nence to  the  subject  of  natural  philosophy.  Of  the  first  two  pro- 
fessors selected  for  the  college,  one  taught  Christian  theology 
and  the  other,  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  The  curriculum 
on  the  whole,  however,  was  in  conformity  with  the  traditional  col- 
lege curriculum  of  the  times.  The  course  of  study  reported  as  a- 


1.  N.  E.  A.  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  1101. 


. 

. 


. 


. 


50 


dopted  in  1839  contains  no  scientific  subjects,  although  the  fac- 
ulty list  for  that  year  shows  that  the  Rev.  Washington  Lever ett, 

A.  M. , was  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  history.  He  is 
still  reported  as  holding  the  same  position  in  the  college  in 
1849.  In  addition,  however,  in  1849,  Erastus  Adkins,  A.M. , is  re- 
ported as  professor  of  oratory,  rhetoric,  and  belles  lettres,  al- 
so professor  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  President  Leverett  re- 
ported to  the  trustees  in  1850  that  "to  the  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus  no  additions  have  been  made.  The  cabinet  has 
been  increased  by  the  addition  of  a considerable  number  of  minera- 
logical  specimens  from  different  localities  in  several  states  of 
the  Union.  Henry  Spaulding  has  deposited  some  twenty  specimens, 
collected  mostly  in  Arkansas."  The  faculty  list  for  1869  con- 
tains the  names  of  Charles  Fairman,  A.  M. , Edwards  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  history,  and  Ebenezer  Marsh,  Jr.,  A.  M. , 

Ph.  D. , Hunter  lecturer  on  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy. 

In  1883  Charles  Fairman,  LL.D.,  is  both  Edwards  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy,  and  Hunter  lecturer  on  chemistry, 
geology,  and  mineralogy.  L.  F.  Schussler,  M.  D.  , was  professor 
of  natural  sciences  and  David  H.  Jackson,  B.  L. , instructor  in 
American  history  and  physiology.  In  the  same  year,  1889,  a donation 
of  four  hundred  dollars  was  received  by  the  college  for  the  pur- 
chase of  physics  apparatus.  "This  was  practically  the  beginning 
of  the  physical  laboratory,  for  the  equipment  prior  to  the  time  of 
this  unexpected  gift  was  exceedingly  scant." 

The  science  work  at  McKendree  College,  the  second  col- 
lege established  in  Illinois,  was  in  the  early  days  of  the  college 
very  similar  to  that  offered  at  Shurtleff.  The  higher  branches 


51 


taught  at  McKendree  at  first  were  mathematics,  natural  and  moral 
philosophy,  and  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages.  The  articles  of 
organization  of  the  school  in  1823  provided  for  a hoard  of  managers 
"for  the  governing  of  the  institution,  selecting  professors  and 
teachers,  library,  astronomical,  chemical,  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus, elementary  books,  etc."  The  articles  of  incorporation 
issued  in  1835  provide  among  other  powers  and  duties  of  the  trus- 
tees that  they  should  "purchase  books  and  chemical  and  philosophi- 
cal apparatus,  and  other  suitable  means  of  instruction." 

The  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  located  at  Normal, 
Illinois,  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  development  of  science  in- 
struction in  the  state.  It  was  established  "to  qualify  teachers 
for  the  Common  Schools  of  this  State,  by  imparting  instruction  in 
the  art  of  teaching;  in  the  branches  of  study  which  pertain  to  a 
Common  School  education;  in  the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences, 
including  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology." 
"It  was  foreseen  that  the  course  of  study  in  the  university  would 
eventually  be  reproduced  in  a thousand  villages  and  settlements 
all  over  the  prairies;  that  if  the  Natural  Sciences  found  place 
in  the  course  hers,  they  would  there." 

The  characteristic  of  educational  leaders  of  Illinois 
to  encourage  every  step  in  advance  was  particularly  true  of  the 
early  teachers  at  the  State  Normal  University.  Superintendent 
Brooks  reports  in  1864  that  "nowhere  has  this  generous  and  sensi- 
ble tendency  been  more  manifest  than  in  the  matter  of  the  Normal 
University."  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  correctly  the  great  ser- 
vice rendered  by  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University  in  the  de- 


. 

■ 


' 


52 


velopment  of  the  schools  of  the  state. 

Not  much  was  done  in  the  way  of  science  instruction  in 

the  first  year  after  the  school's  organization.  A fund  cf  about 
one  thousand  dollars  was  donated  by  the  Me  ssrs..  Merriam  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  be  used  in  purchasing  philosophical  and  chemical  ap- 
paratus. Five  hundred  dollars  of  this  amount  was  expended  in  185 ^ 
for  philosophical  apparatus  and  the  remainder  was  reserved  for  pur- 
chasing chemical  apparatus  whenever  it  should  be  required.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  second  year,  September,  1858,  E.  R.  Roe  was  re- 
ported as  lecturer  in  chemistry  and  philosophy.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  year,  I860,  Joseph  A.  Sewall  was  instructor  in  natural j 
sciences.  The  report  of  the  University  for  the  fifth  year  shows  the| 
following  courses  in  science  offered; 

Chemistry,  second  term,  second  year,  thirteen  weeks. 

Botany,  third  term,  second  year,  twelve  weeks. 

Physiology,  first  term,  third  year,  fifteen  weecks. 

Natural  philosophy,  first  term,  third  year,  fifteen  weeks. 
Zoology,  third  term,  third  year,  twelve  weeks. 

The  methods  of  these  early  science  courses  in  the  Normal 
University  "were  not  those  of  the  modern  science  teacher."  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  in  an  interesting  way  characterized  the  work  of  that 
period  in  the  School's  history. 1 "Botany  was  chiefly  a study  of 
text  and  the  analysis  of  plants;  the  chemistry  was  apparently  poured 
over  the  heads  of  the  pupils  like  a shower  bath,  and  there  was  no 
student's  laboratory  for  many  years;  the  physiology  was  demonstrate'; 


1.  Forbes'  History  and  Status  of  Public  Science  Work,  p.4. 


. 


; 

' 


' 


53 


to  the  imagination  only;  and  the  physics  was  taught  as  a department 
of  mathematics,  by  deduction  from  first  principles,  with  a sover- 
eign contempt  for  apparatus  and  experiment,  not  merely  implied  but 
vigorously  expressed.  Zoology  was  not  regularly  introduced  until 
after  1872. " The  early  work  was  hampered,  too,  by  a lack  of  ap- 
paratus and  supplies.  In  the  report  for  1867-1868  we  find  that 
"with  a professor  in  chemistry  and  the  natural  sciences,  second  to 
none  in  the  West;  and  with  a room  in  the  University  building  ad- 
mirably planned  as  a laboratory,  no  apparatus  or  furniture  has 
as  yet  been  supplied  for  want  of  the  necessary  means  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  board. 

The  next  few  years  brought  marked  improvement  in  the 
science  instruction  in  the  University.  We  find  it  reported  in 
1874  that  "Among  the  subjects  taught  in  the  institution,  natural 
sciences  hold  a prominent  position.  With  the  museum  of  natural 
science,  and  its  thoroughly  classified  and  catalogued  contents, 
entirely  and  easily  accessible  to  every  student  that  wishes  to 
study  them;  with  the  ripe  attainments  of  Dr.  Sewall,  and  the  in- 
tense enthusiasm  of  Professor  Forbes  to  direct  and  inspire  the 
students,  it  is  believed  that  the  Normal  furnishes  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  acquiring  a thorough  and  practical  knowledge  of 
these  sciences.  As  a consequence  the  interest  that  has  been  a- 
wakened  in  the  classes  in  these  subjects  is  marked.  No  other 
class  of  studies  is,  on  the  whole,  more  popular.  In  none  is  the 
desire  for  instruction  and  progress  more  eager. "2 


1.  State  Superintendent 1 2 s Report,  1887-68,  p.  354. 

2.  Ibid. , 1873-74,  p.  127. 


. 


■ 


* 


■ 

. 


54 


"It  is  believed  that  no  other  state  normal  school  in  the 
country  has,  as  a part  of  its  own  permanent  equipment,  such  exten- 
sive facilities  for  the  study  and  illustration  of  natural  history 
as  afforded  to  the  students  of  this  school  by  this  museum.  I am 
glad  to  be  able  to  add  that  there  is  an  increasing  disposition  to 
utilize  these  rare  privileges.” 

The  modern  laboratory  method  of  instruction  was  intro- 
duced by  Professor  Forbes  in  his  zoology  work  at  the  State  Normal 
University  in  1374,  The  introduction  of  this  method  in  zoology 
and  the  other  sciences  is  probably  the  most  important  and  far- 
reaching  change  introduced  during  the  whole  history  of  science  in- 
struction in  the  schools.  Professor  Forbes  was  given  charge  of 
the  zoology  classes  and  at  his  request  a zoological  laboratory 
was  fitted  up  in  a basement  room  during  the  summer  of  1874. ^ It 
was  provided  with  stools,  dissecting  tables,  sinks,  washing  con- 
veniences, etc.  According  to  Professor  Forbes'  statement  the 
new  laboratory  "answered  its  purpose  admirably."  Dissections 
were  made  "each  term  by  the  pupils  of  the  zoology  classes,  at  an 
average  cost  for  materials,  etc.  , of  about  three  cents  a day  per 
pupil.  There  is  probably  no  other  institution  in  the  state — 
perhaps  not  another  in  the  West — which  affords  advantages  for  the 
study  of  natural  history  superior  to  those  now  open  to  the  stu- 
dents of  our  Normal  University." 

The  Illinois  State  Normal  University  with  the  State  Mu- 
seum located  in  one  of  its  buildings  "created  a little  center  of 
scientific  activity,  the  spark  of  whose  life  has  never  yet  gone 


1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  1875-76,  p.  80. 


' 


■ 


' 

■ 


. . 


. 


54 


out  in  Illinois."  The  names  of  many  of  the  men  connected  with 
the  early  science  instruction  at  the  Normal  University,  such  as 
Sewall,  Wilber,  Holder,  Powell,  Thompson,  Vasey,  Forbes,  and 
Colton,  will  be  long  held  in  grateful  remembrance  by  the  future 
scientists  of  the  state.  Their  work  "stood  from  the  beginning  in 
close  relation  to  the  schools"  and  influenced  strongly  the  trend 
of  science  instruction  in  the  schools  of  the  state. 

In  more  recent  years  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Universi- 
ty has  done  much  to  promote  nature  study  work  in  the  elementary 
schools.  Charles  and  Patterson  are  familiar  names  to  those  ac- 
quainted with  this  field.  Pricer,  through  his  regular  work  in 
biology  and  his  work  in  the  Biology  Section  of  the  High  School 
Conference,  has  done  much  to  stimulate  an  interest  in  biology  and 
to  outline  courses  for  secondary  schools.  Barber  is,  with  others, 
the  author  of  a general  science  text  that  is  widely  used. 

The  second  state  normal  school  was  the  Southern  Illinois 
State  Normal  university,  organized  in  and  located  at  Carbondale. 

From  its  first  organization  special  emphasis  was  given  to  science 
instruction.  The  first  published  curriculum  offers  the  following 
science  courses;* 1 

Preparatory  Course: 

Elementary  natural  history,  third  term,  first  year. 

Botany,  elementary  astronomy,  third  term,  second  year 

Physiology i first  term,  third  year. 

Natural  philosophy,  second  term,  third  year. 


Normal  Course  - Classical  and  Scientific: 

Physiology,  second  term,  second  year. 

Botany,  natural  philosophy,  third  term,  second  year. 
Zoology,  first  term,  third  year. 

Chemistry,  second  term,  third  year. 

Geology,  third  term,  third  year. 

Physical  geography,  first  term,  fourth  year. 

Astronomy,  second  term,  fourth  year. 


1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  1886-87, p.CLXXVIII. 


* 


. 

. 

. 


. 


55 

"A  poet  graduate  year  will  be  added,  which  will  include 
calculus,  history,  political  economy,  chemical  analysis,  dissect- 
ing, and  preserving  specimens  of  natural  history,  field  work  in 
botany,  and  practical  teaching  with  lectures  on  art,  history, 
physics,  etc.” 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  arrangement  of  courses  just 
given  that  the  most  of  the  courses  named  are  of  the  single  term 
informational  type  which  was  common  at  that  time  and  for  two  de- 
cades later. 

"On  the  26th  of  April,  1870,  Professor  Cyrus  Thomas,  of 
De  Soto,  Jackson  County,  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Natural 
Science  in  the  University.  The  Board  took  this  early  action  in 
this  case,  in  order  to  secure  to  the  University  the  eminent  abili- 
ties of  professor  Thomas,  and  that  he  might  at  once  engage  in  the 
work  of  making  collections  for  a cabinet  of  specimens,  to  be  ready 
for  use  when  the  building  should  be  completed,  and  the  Institution 
be  opened  for  the  admission  of  students.  Professor  Thomas  is  re- 
commended by  such  men  as  Professor  Hayden,  U.  S.  C-eologist;  Pro- 
fessor Henry,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution^.  Ex-CTOvernor  J.  D. 

Cox,  late  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  others,  and  is  believed 
to  possess  unusual  qualifications  for  the  position  to  which  he  has 
been  appointed. 1,1 

Professor  Thomas  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  school 
was  appointed  to  the  position  of  State  Entomologist,  so  he  was  able 
to  give  but  little  of  his  time  to  science  instruction  in  the  Uni- 
versity. However,  with  Professor  French,  he  made  valuable  collec- 


1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  '6?-' 70,  p.  89. 


■ 


. 


. 


- 


' 

. 


’ ' 


56 


tions  for  the  school's  museum.  During  this  early  period  the 
school  museum  was  considered  an  important  and  almost  indispensable 
part  of  science  instruction.  In  1883  a fire  destroyed  the  South- 
ern Illinois  Normal  University  Museum  collections.  Professor 
French  as  curator  later  replaced  many  of  the  specimens  destroyed 
by  the  fire.  The  work  in. the  Model  School  at  its  organization 
included  object  lessons,  and  primary  lessons  in  natural  history. 

In  recent  years  the  normal  schools  of  the  state  have 
kept  in  touch  with  all  progressive  movements  in  science  instruc- 
tion. Applied  science,  material,  rather  than  "pure  science",  materi- 
al has  been  ably  advocated  by  many  of  the  normal  school  science 
men.  Caldwell , of  the  Eastern  Illinois  Normal  School;  Gilbert, 
of  the  Southern  Illinois  Normal  university,  and  Johnson,  of  the 
Western  State  Normal  School,  were  prominent  among  those  who  em- 
phasized practical  and  applied  science  material  as  the  basis  for 
instruction. 

The  universities  of  the  state  have  made  large  contribu- 
tions to  science  and  science  instruction  in  Illinois.  The  two 
universities  that  stand  out  most  prominently  in  this  respect  pro- 
bably are  the  University  of  Chicago  and  the  university  of  Illinois. 
Their  contributions  may  be  classified  under  the  heads  of,  (l)  sci- 
entific research,  (2)  text  books  written  by  teachers  in  the  uni- 
versities, (3)  preparation  of  teachers,  (4)  extension  work  through 
lectures  and  correspondence  courses,  (5)  teachers'  conferences. 

The  important  scientific  contributions  of  the  University 
of  Chicago  have  been  made  since  its  reorganization  in  1893  under 
President  Harper.  The  old  University,  while  it  had  a long  and 


. 


. 


. 


. . ; t ■ 


' 


... 


■ 


57 


memorable  career,  had  little  in  connection  with  its  scientific 
work  to  distinguish  it  from  other  colleges  and  universities  of 
its  time.  The  reorganized  university,  however,  because  of  its 
large  financial  resources,  was  able  under  the  leadership  of  Dr. 
Harper  to  assemble  a faculty  of  eminent  scientific  specialists 
and  to  build  and  supply  laboratories  with  the  best  available  e- 
quipment.  While  Dr.  Harper's  preparation  and  interests  were 
largely  along  the  line  of  the  humanistic  studies  and  it  was  his 
ambition  to  build  up  strong  departments  along  those  lines,  he  did 
not  neglect  to  build  up  also  strong  scientific  departments.  The 
building  up  of  the  strong  scientific  departments  was  made  possible 
through  the  liberal  donations  of  several  wealthy  residents  of 
Chicago.  The  story  of  the  organization  and  rapid  development  of 
the  University  of  Chicago  is  indeed  an  interesting  one. 

Before  the  formal  opening  of  the  University  Dr.  Harper 
wrote  that  it  was  "one  of  the  cherished  plans  of  those  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  organization  to  devote  special  attention 
to  the  encouragement  of  scientific  research."^  At  first  Dr.  Har- 
per found  it  difficult  to  induce  strong  men  to  leave  other  univer- 
sities and  to  ally  themselves  with  the  new  school.  However,  later, 
when  strong  financial  support  was  assured  and  his  plan  of  organiza- 
tion appeared  certain  to  succeed,  he  found  much  less  difficulty  in 
surrounding  himself  with  men  of  the  ability  that  he  desired  for  the 
new  school.  The  first  faculty  list  announced  contained  the  follow- 
ing na.mes  as  heads  of  departments  or  professors  in  scientific  de- 
partments:^ 


1.  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  p.  174. 

2.  Ibid. , p . 436. 


. 


' 


58 


Thomas  Chrowder  Chamberlain,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. , Head  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology  and  Dean  in  the  college  of  Science. 

Charles  0.  Whitman,  Ph.D.,  Head  Professor  of  Biology 
and  Professor  of  Animal  Morphology. 

Albert  A.  Michelson,  Ph.D. , Head  Professor  of  Physics. 

Rolin  D.  Salisbury,  A.M. , Professor  of  Geographic  Ge- 
ology. 

Franklin  P.  Mall,  M.D. , Professor  of  Anatomy. 

John  Ulric  Nef,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

Other  familiar  names  appearing  on  the  first  faculty  list  were 
C.  R.  Van  Hise,  Frederick  Starr,  Jacques  Loeb.  With  such  names  on 
the  first  faculty  it  was  easy  to  predict  that  the  university  would 
soon  be  a leader  in  scientific  lines. 

The  organization  of  the  Ogden  Graduate  School  of  Science 
was  one  of  the  first  important  steps  in  the  development  of  the  sci- 
ence work  of  the  University.  It  was  provided  in  the  will  of  Will- 
iam 3.  Ogden  that  a large  amount  of  money  should  be  devoted  to 
charitable  purposes.  After  considerable  correspondence,  the  exe- 
cutors of  the  estate  decided  to  give  seventy  per  cent  of  the  monies 
left  for  charitable  purposes  to  the  University  of  Chicago  for  the 
establishment  of  a graduate  school  for  scientific  research.  The 
Ogden  Graduate  School  of  Science  was  organized  as  a result  of  this 
gift  and  received  in  all  about  six  hundred  thousand  dollars  from 
the  Ogden  estate. ^ 

A second  impulse  to  the  further  development  of  science 
work  resulted  from  the  erection  of  the  Kent  Chemical  Laboratory. 

In  February,  1392,  Sidney  A.  Kent  offered  to  build  and  equip  a 


1.  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  p.  174. 


. . 

. 

. 

. , 

f.  . 


. . 


' 


5S 


chemical  laboratory  to  be  known  as  the  Kent  Chemical  Laboratory. 

The  erection  and  equipment  cost  him  two  hundred  thirty-five  thou- 
sand dollars.  Ira  Remsen  came  from  Baltimore  to  assist  the  archi- 
tect in  working  out  plans  and  details  for  the  biulding.  It  was 
formally  dedicated  on  January  1,  1394. 

A third  step  in  the  expansion  of  the  scientific  work  of 
the  University  was  the  building  of  the  Ryerson  Physical  Laboratory. 
This  building  was  dedicated  on  July  2,  1894.  In  accepting  the 
building,  President  Harper  said,  "There  may  be  larger  laboratories. 
There  may  be  one  or  two  that  have  cost  more  money;  but  there  is 
not  one  which  contains  as  little  waste  room  or  as  much  working 
space,  or  that  is  provided  with  as  many  useful  conveniences  as  the 
Ryerson  Physical  Laboratory."  The  original  building  cost  approxi- 
mately two  hundred  thousand  dollars.  In  1910  Mr.  Ryerson  built 
and  equipped  an  annex  to  the  original  building  at  an  additional 
cost  of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars.1 

In  the  first  years  of  the  University  the  provisions  for 
the  Biology  Department  were  wholly  inadequate.  Professor  Whitman 
says  that  "Our  earliest  days  in  the  University  were  spent  in  the 
garrets  and  kitchens  of  a tenement  house.  We  were  then  tenderly 
transferred  to  the  unused  corners  of  Kent  Chemical  Laboratory 
where  - - - we  struggled  for  three  years  for  bare  existence."2 
A most  welcome  and  at  the  same  time  unusually  liberal  donation 
was  made  in  1835  by  Miss  Helen  Culver  who  gave  a million  dollars 
to  be  devoted  to  the  increase  and  spread  of  knowledge  within  the 
field  of  the  biological  sciences."  As  a result  of  this  gift  four 


1.  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  p.  240. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  305. 


■ 


laboratories  were  built — zoological,  anatomical,  physiological, 
and  botanical.  The  four  buildings  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
quadrangle  and  are  known  as  the  Hull  Biological  Laboratories.  They 
were  dedicated  July  2,  1897. 

Two  other  buildings  worthy  of  notice  are  the  Walker  Mu- 
seum and  the  Yerkes  Observatory.  George  C.  Walker,  in  18S2,  do- 
nated one  hundred  thousand  dollars  to  build  a museum  to  be  known 
as  the  Walker  Museum.  The  building  was  dedicated  on  October  2, 

1893.  It  has  been  used  since  that  time  net  only  as  a museum  but 
as  a lecture  hall  for  geology,  geography,  anthropology,  and  paleon- 
tology. 1 During  the  first  week  of  the  University,  Charles  T.  Yer- 
kes arranged  to  build  one  of  the  most  complete  astronomical  obser- 
vatories in  the  world  for  the  University.  At  first  it  was  pro- 
posed to  locate  the  observatory  in  Chicago,  but,  owing  to  the  usual 

smoky  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  it  was  finally  decided  to  lo- 

p 

cate  it  at  Lake  Geneva.  It  was  finally  completed  in  the  year  1897. 

These  descriptions  of  science  laboratories  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  have  been  given  at  some  length  to  show  the  real 

facilities  afforded  by  the  University  for  science  work  in  all  fields, 

The  men  at  the  heads  of  the  different  departments  are  men  of  inter- 
national reputation  in  their  respective  fields.  Professor  Thomas 
Chamberlain  was  brought  from  the  Presidency  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  to  the  position  of  Professor  of  Geology  and  Dean  of  the 
College  of  Science.  During  the  first  two  years  of  the  University 
no  instruction  was  offered  in  botany.  In  July,  1894,  Dr.  John  M. 
Coulter,  then  President  of  Lake  Forest  University,  became  a lecturer 

1.  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  p.  230. 

2.  Ibid. , p.  307.  


. 


. 


' 


‘ 


. 


SI 


in  "botany.1  He  came  to  the  University  three  times  per  week  to  lec- 
ture. Two  years  later  he  resigned  his  position  as  President  of 
Lake  Forest  university  and  accepted  a position  as  head  of  the  De- 
partment of  Botany  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  Dr.  Coulter  has 
been  influential  in  the  field  of  botany  through  his  reorganization 
of  the  subject  matter  and  in  redirecting  the  trend  of  thought  in 
botany  work  along  ecological  lines. 

It  was  a part  of  Dr.  Harper’s  plan  for  organizing  the 
University  of  Chicago  that  in  addition  to  the  organization  of  regu- 
lar departments  as  was  the  usual  custom  of  universities,  its  in- 
fluence should  be  further  extended  through  correspondence  courses, 
extension  lectures,  and  a department  of  publications.  His  ideas 
along  this  line  have  been  fully  justified  and  through  the  methods 
named  the  work  of  the  University  has  been  more  widely  extended. 

The  work  of  the  secondary  schools  has  been  influenced 
greatly  through  the  text  books  written  for  high  school  use  by  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  of  the  University.  In  the  field  of  science 
Coulter's  text  books  on  botany,  Salisbury's  Physical  Geography, 
Millikan  and  Gale's  Physics,  Caldwell  and  Eikenberry's  General 
Science  have  had  a wide  use  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state  and 
have  had  much  to  do  with  influencing  the  character  of  the  work 
done  in  these  subjects.  All  of  the  text  books  just  named  are 
listed  with  the  best  sellers  among  high  school  texts. 

The  University  of  Illinois  has  had  an  important  place  in 
influencing  science  instruction  throughout  the  state.  Dr.  Forbes 
has  characterized  the  early  years  of  the  University  in  saying  that 


1.  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  p.  322. 


' 

k- 


, 


...  * I 


62 


"The  growth  of  this  institution  has  been  differentiated  from  the 
common  standards  of  institutions  of  higher  learning  by  the  deter- 
mination of  its  efforts  and  resources  toward  science  rather  than 
toward  literature."1  The  foundation  of  the  State  University  was 
the  result  of  a campaign  in  which  strong  emphasis  was  laid  on  the 
sciences  underlying  the  industrial  arts.  Through  its  regular  sci- 
ence courses,  its  accrediting  system,  and  the  Annual  High  School 
Conference,  the  University  has  exerted  an  important  influence  in 
directing  and  influencing  science  teaching  throughout  the  state. 

The  agitation  which  finally  resulted  in  the  founding  of 
state  universities  throughout  the  nation  had  its  origin  in  Illinois. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Jonathan  Baldwin  Turner  a campaign  was  be- 
gun about  1850  for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  appropriation  from 
Congress  of  a sufficient  amount  of  public  lands  for  each  state 
"for  the  appropriate  endowment  for  the  liberal  education  of  the  in- 
dustrial classes  in  their  several  pursuits  in  each  state  in  the 
Union."  Sentiment  in  Illinois  was  strongly  infa.vor  of  the  plan. 

The  Morrill  Land  Grant  Bill  was  introduced  in  185?  by  Senator  Mor- 
rill of  Vermont.  It  was  ’Inspired  by  Turner,  and  in  part  composed 
in  his  language."  The  bill  finally  passed,  but,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  President  and  congress  had  for  some  time  been  unfriendly 
to  each  other,  the  bill  was  vetoed  by  President  Buchanan.  Abraham 
Lincoln  in  the  campaign  of  I860  promised  Turner  that  if  elected  he 
would  sign  his  bill  for  state  universities.  The  bill  was  reintro- 
duced into  Congress,  passed,  and  in  accordance  with  his  premise 
signed  by  President  Lincoln.  Edmund  J.  James,  former  President  of 
the  University  said,  "To  Jonathan  3.  Turner,  the  Illinois  professor 
1.  Report  of  State  Superintendent,  1886-1887, p.CLVI I. 


' 

. 

■ 


- . ' ' ' ? " . 


£3 

and  farmer,  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first  formulated  clearly 
the  plan  of  a national  grant  of  land  to  each  state  in  the  Union 
for  the  promotion  of  education  in  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts, 
and  of  having  inaugurated  the  agitation  that  made  possible  the 
passage  of  the  so-called  Morrill  Act.'1  With  the  passing  of  the 
years,  the  importance  of  Professor  Turner's  efforts  in  this  edu- 
cational campaign  will  gradually  come  to  be  more  clearly  recog- 
nized throughout  the  state  and  the  nation. 

After  the  acceptance  of  the  grant  by  the  State  Legisla- 
ture in  1863,  a persistent  and  determined  effort  was  made  to  di- 
vide the  funds  to  be  received  from  the  grant  among  existing  col- 
leges. It  was  also  proposed  that  an  agricultural  college  be  es- 
tablished down  state  and  that  a mechanical  college  be  located  in 
Chicago.  Turner  said  in  answer  to  these  demands  that  "We  wish 
now  wisely  to  begin  a peculiar  university  - - - which  our  posteri- 
ty can  erect  into  the  strongest,  broadest,  and  best  university  on 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Our  institution  is  wholly  new," 

Ardent  advocates  of  this  "peculiar"  university  strongly 
opposed  the  introduction  into  the  curriculum  of  English  literature, 
and  the  study  of  ancient  and  modern  languages.  It  was  their  idea 
that  only  the  directly  practical  subjects  directly  connected  with 
industrial  occupations  should  be  taught.  Because  of  difference  of 
opinion  on  this  particular  point.,  the  policy  finally  adopted  was 
strongly  opposed.  Many  influential  persons  failed  to  support  the 
University,  and  its  growth  and  development  were  seriously  retarded. 

On  March  13,  1867,  Dr.  John  Milton  Gregory  was  elected 
Regent.  The  fact  that  he  was  a Doctor  of  Divinity  and  had  a "deep- 


' 


. 


. 

, 

' 


. 


* 


64 


er  reverence  for  the  classics  than  was  precisely  necessary  for  that 
section  of  the  corn  belt"  served  to  alienate  many  farmers  and  oth- 
ers who  had  been  original  promoters  of  the  plan  for  the  University. 
Even  Professor  Turner  would  have  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the 
University  for  several  years  after  it  was  started.  It  wae  his  o- 
pinion  that  the  right  kind  of  men  had  not  been  selected  as  members 
of  the  faculty.  He  thought  that  the "teachers  ought  to  be  men  who 
had  made  the  sciences  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  their  special 
studies — not  mere  book  scholars."  The  differences  of  opinions 
and  dissensions  extended  even  to  the  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees. M.  L.  Dunlap,  one  of  the  trustees,  opposed  the  policies  of 
Regent  Gregory  because  as  he  said  he  "felt  the  want  of  a more  tho- 
rough scientific  course  of  study."  He  regretted  the  fact  that  his 
4<own  researches  in  the  department  of  chemistry  had  not  been  more 
given  in  the  direction  of  soils,  rather  than  to  medicine."  ^ The 
first  faculty  members  selected  afforded  according  to  his  opinion 
a "poor  outlook  for  agriculture  or  mechanic  arts."  Dunlap  objected 
to  the  Bromley  purchase  saying  that  he  thought  that  an  Illinois 
collection  would  be  of  more  benefit.  There  were  those  who  be- 
lieved that  the  new  institution  would  be  nothing  more  than  another 
of  the  "old  colleges"  and  it  was  asked  "Why  add,  by  a public  grant 
of  lands,  to  these  old  institutions,  of  which  the  people  already 
have  too  many?" 

The  first  arrangement  of  curriculums  was  prepared  by  a 
committee  composed  of  five  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  with 


1.  Powell’s  University  of  Illinois  Semi-Centennial  His- 
tory, p.  288. 


. 


. 


. 


1 

. 


c *,  ' " 


65 


Dr.  Gregory  as  chairman.  The  following  arrangement  of  the  work 
planned  for  the  University  was  reported  by  the  Committee: 

I.  Agricultural  department 

1.  Agriculture 

2.  Horticulture 

3.  Landscape  gardening 

II.  Polytechnical  department 

1.  Mechanical  science  and  art 

2.  Civil  engineering 

3.  Mining  and  metallurgy 

4.  Architecture  and  fine  arts 

III.  Military  department 

1.  Engineering 

2.  Tactics 

IV.  Chemistry  and  natural  science 

V.  Trade  and  commerce 

VI.  General  science  and  literature 

1.  Mathematics 

2.  Natural  history,  chemistry,  etc. 

3.  English  language  and  literature 

4.  Modern  languages  and  literature 

5.  Ancient  languages  and  literature 

S. . History  and  social  science 

7.  Philosophy  (intellectual  and  moral) 

The  curriculum  arrangement  reported  evidently  was  planned 
to  meet  the  criticism  of  those  who  demanded  practical  subjects.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  first  sub j ects actually  taught  at 
the  opening  of  the  University  were  algebra,  geometry,  natural  phi- 
losophy, history,  rhetoric,  and  Latin. 

The  first  faculty  consisted  of  three  members  beside 
Regent  Gregory — William  Baker , George  W.  Atherton,  and  Jonathan 
Periam.  Willard  F.  Bliss  was  elected  professor  of  Agriculture, 
March  10,  1868.  The  next  man  added  to  the  faculty  was  Thomas  J. 
Burrill.  He  was  a graduate  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Universi- 
ty, had  accompanied  Major  Powell  on  his  famous  expedition  to  the 


66 


Rocky  Mountains,  and  was  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Urbana  when 
he  was  called  to  a position  in  the  University.  He  took  charge  of 
the  work  in  natural  science  in  April,  1868.  In  August,  1868,  he 
was  elected  Assistant  Professor  of  Natural  Science.  In  August, 
1868,  A.  P.  S.  Stuart  of  Harvard  university  was  elected  as  teach- 
er of  chemistry.  In  addition  to  providing  science  teachers  and 
in  order  to  satisfy  critics  of  the  University,  the  following  re- 
solution was  passed  by  the  Board  of  Trustees:  "Resolved  that  we 

recognize  it  as  a duty  of  the  board  of  trustees  to  make  the  Uni- 
versity pre-eminently  a practical  school  of  agriculture  and  the 
•mechanic  arts,  not  excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  stu- 
dies." 

A museum  or  a cabinet  of  scientific  specimens  was  con- 
sidered an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  for  science  teaching 
at  the  time  the  University  was  established.  At  an  early  meeting 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees  a sum  of  money  "not  to  exceed  six  thou- 
sand dollars"  was  set  aside  to  be  used  in  purchasing  the  Bromley 
cabinet.  This  cabinet  was  a collection  of  specimens  in  the  fields 
of  mineralogy,  geology,  and  conchology  made  by  Professor  Bromley 
of  Georgia.  On  inspection  of  the  cabinet  by  Regent  Gregory,  the 
specimens  were  found  to  be  in  poor  condition,  and  consequently 
the  cabinet  was  not  purchased  for  the  University. 

Five  hundred  dollars  were  appropriated  by  the  Trustees 
to  Major  Powell  to  assist  in  paying  the  expenses  of  his  Rocky  Moun- 
tain expedition.  It  was  expected  that  in  return  for  this  financial 
assistance  the  University  would  receive  a number  of  specimens  fcr 
its  collection.  In  March,  1868,  Major  Powell  appeared  before  the 


, 


. 


. 


> 

. 


: 


' 


. 


67 


Board  of  Trustees,  discussed  his  expedition,  and  promised  them 
specimens.  The  university,  however,  never  received  as  large  a 
number  of  specimens  from  this  source  as  they  were  led  to  expect. 
Some  of  those  which  were  received  may  yet  be  seen  in  the  natural 
history  museum  at  the  University. 

The  first  natural  history  survey  and  collecting  trip 
was  made  in  the  summer  of  1868.  An  appropriation  of  three  hundred 
dollars  was  made  for  this  trip  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  placed 
in  the  hands  of  T.  J.  Burr ill.  In  company  with  five  or  six  stu- 
dent assistants,  he  travelled  through  several  different  parts  of 
the  state  making  a collection  of  specimens  for  the  University. 

They  collected  plants,  birds,  reptiles,  insects,  mammals,  a number 
of  fossils,  of  fresh  water  shells,  and  of  minerals,  with  some 
specimens  of  different  kinds  of  woods,  soils,  materials  of  manu- 
facture, and  of  manufactured  articles.” 

Chemistry  was  probably  the  first  science  to  be  developed 
as  a laboratory  subject  at  the  University.  In  1868,  A.  P.  S. 
Stuart  of  Harvard  University  was  employed  to  teach  chemistry.  In 
1868,  five ‘thousand  dollars  were  appropriated  for  the  chemical  de- 
partment. In  1870  we  learn  that  "the  important  relation  which 
chemistry  sustains  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  is  recog- 
nized in  the  interest  that  crowds  the  somewhat  contracted  limits 
of  that  department,  with  students."^-  "The  advanced  class  in 
chemistry  nearly  fills  the  24  tables  of  the  working  laboratory, 
and  the  new  class  of  50  members  overflows  the  recitation  room, 
and  will  soon  need  a place  for  work."  Later,  in  1874,  when  Pro- 
fessor Stuart  was  assigned  a basement  room  in  the  old  building  for 


1.  Third  Annual  Report,  Illinois  Indus.  Univ. , p.  IX. 


68 


his  work,  he  resigned,  saying  that  he  "had  had  enough  of  basement 
service."  His  resignation  led  the  trustees  of  build  a separate 
building  for  the  chemistry  department  a few  years  later. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  John  W.  Powell  was  elected 
Professor  of  Natural  History,  March  11,  1838.  However,  he  never 
entered  service  and  resigned  the  following  year.  Don  Carlos  Taft 
was  engaged  in  1871  to  teach  geology.  He  later  was  elected  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology  and  Zoology.  After  Professor  Stuart's  resigna- 
tion in  1874,  Henry  A.  Weber  was  employed  to  teach  chemistry.  He 
was  made  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  June,  1875. 

From  the  early  days  of  the  University  chemistry  was  one 
of  the  most  popular  subjects.  Because  of  crowded  conditions  a 
chemistry  building  was  erected  in  1877.  The  cost  of  the  building 
was  $30,000.  Compared  with  the  present  day  cost  of  buildings, 
this  is  a modest  expenditure.  However,  at  that  time  it  was  one 
of  the  best  and  largest  chemistry  laboratories  in  the  United  States. 
This  building  is  now  used  by  the  Lav;  School. 

By  I860,  regular  laboratory  work  by  the  pupils  had  become 
an  established  practice.  The  Regent  reports-*-  that  "the  study 
of  physics  occupies  two  college  terms,  in  which  there  are  each 
week  five  recitations  from  a text  book,  one  lecture,  and  four 
hours  of  laboratory  practice.  In  the  latter,  a series  of  about 
forty  experiments  are  performed  by  each  student,  two  working  to- 
gether according  to  a program  arranged  for  the  purpose.  Besides 
the  written  directions  for  the  method  of  procedure,  the  student 
has  the  aid  of  the  Professor  and  his  assistants,  when  needful. 
Careful  notes  and  calculated  results  are  required  on  paper  of  a 


1.  Tenth  Report,  university  of  Illinois  Trustees,  p.  24. 


. 

. 


. 

. 


. 

■ ■ . i -k'i 


. 


69 


given  size." 

Because  of  the  success  of  his  work  in  zoology  at  the 
Illinois  State  Normal  University,  efforts  were  made  to  bring  Pro- 
fessor S.  A.  Forbes  to  the  State  University,  but  Regent  Peabody's 
efforts  were  at  first  unsuccessful.  However,  arrangements  were 
finally  made  and  he  began  work  January  1,  1865.  He  at  once  asked 
for  laboratory  room  and  equipment.  In  a communication  to  the 
Board  of  Trustees  he  said,  "For  the  further  accomodation  of  the 
classes  in  zoology  and  entomology,  the  principal  need,  and  a very 
pressing  one,  is  that  of  a student's  laboratory  for  the  study  of 
zoological  specimens." 

The  results  of  Professor  Forbes'  work  was  soon  apparent. 
The  Regent  says,1  "The  unsuccessful  effort  of  three  years  ago  to 
secure  for  the  University  the  presence  and  aid  of  Professor  S.  A. 
Forbes  for  the  organization  of  the  instruction  of  zoology  was  re- 
newed last  year  and  has  been  crowned  with  better  fortune.  Since 
the  first  of  the  new  year  the  zoological  laboratory  has  become  an 
active  agency  in  this  department  of  physical  science,  and  its  suc- 
cess is  well  assured.  A new  interest  has  been  aroused  in  this 
science.  The  office  of  the  State  Entomologist  has  found  a home, 
it  is  to  be  hoped  permanent,  where  it  naturally  belongs.  The  gov- 
erning board  of  the  Normal  University  has  unanimously  resolved 
that  the  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History  should  find  its  pro- 
per abode  here  at  the  State  University,  and  has  consented  that  the 
propert}?-  peculiar  to  the  work  of  that  laboratory  may  be  trans- 
ferred hither. " 

1.  Thirteenth  Report,  Board  of  Trustees,  University 
of  Illinois,  p.  19. 


* 


f > • V'  ( ' fc  l f yi  I ' 


. 

. . 


70 


The  work  under  Prof esscrs Forbes  and  Eurrill  expanded 
rapidly  and  soon  agitation  was  begun  for  a second  separate  build- 
ing to  be  used  for  natural  science  instruction.  A Natural  History 
Building  was  erected  in  1892  at  a cost  of  $70,000.  In  1S09  an 
addition  was  erected  at  a cost  of  $135,000,  making  the  total  cost, 
including  the  old  building,  $245,000. 

Soon  after  entering  upon  his  term  of  office.  President 
Draper  “expressed  the  conviction  that  the  University  must  ask  for 
much  larger  appropriations."  The  number  of  students  was  rapidly 
increasing.  Other  state  universities  were  receiving  more  liberal 
appropriations  from  their  legislatures.  The  University  of  Chicago 
had  just  been  reorganized  with  large  resources  and  hitherto  un- 
heard of  and  almost  fabulous  sums  were  being  spent  in  erecting 
'buildings.  A chemistry  building,  a physics  laboratory,  and  bi- 
ological laboratories  were  built  and  equipped  by  wealthy  Chicago 
residents.  All  of  these  had  an  influence  on  plans  made  for  the 
expansion  of  the  State  University.  As  Dr.  Burrill  well  said  while 
standing  on  the  steps  of  the  Ryerson  Physical  Laboratory  at  the 
University  of  Chicago,  "The  people  of  the  state  will  never  appreci- 
ate what  this  institution  has  meant  to  us  at  the  old  University . n-L 

The  third  science  building  to  be  erected  on  the  Universi- 
ty campus  was  a new  chemistry  building.  The  old  chemistry  build- 
ing, for  years  the  pride  of  the  University  authorities,  became 
wholly  inadequate  for  the  growing  needs  of'  that  department.  An 
appropriation  was  secured  and  a new  building  erected  at  a total 
cost  of  $180,000.  In  1913  it  became  necessary  to  build  an  ad- 
dition to  this  building.  The  addition  cost  $330,  953,  making  the 


1.  Alumni  Record,  1918,  p.  XVII. 


. 


. 


. 

' ' c 

I 

. 


. 

. 


. 

. 


. 

...  - 


. 


71 


total  cost  of  the  present  chemistry  building  ^540, 953.  A fourth 
science  building,  the  physics  building,  was  erected  in  1909  at  a 
cost  of  $220,000. 

The  Stats  University  has  in  many  ways  influenced  the  de- 
velopment of  the  state.  Nevins1  has  pointed  out  that  "where  the 
University  comes  closest  to  the  life  of  the  state  is  in  the  fields 
of  teaching  and  agriculture)  and  perhaps  its  most  direct  influ- 
ence is  in  the  former.  - - - It  trains  a large  part  of  the  secon- 
dary school  teachers,  and  through  the  school  of  education  and  the 
office  of  high  school  visitor,  held  since  1902  by  H.  A.  Hollister, 
it  cooperates  with  the  public  authorities  in  determining  their 
standards."  The  Annual  High  School  Conference,  held  by  the  Uni- 
versity under  the  direction  of  the  High  School  Visitor,  has  had 
an  important  influence  on  secondary  school  instruction  throughout 
the  state.  We  can  readily  agree  with  President  James’  statement 
that  "The  grain  of  mustard  planted  by  the  Boneyard  stream  in 
1387  has  indeed  become  a great  tree," 


1.  Nevins’  Illinois,  p.  326. 


. 


. 


jl 


72 

VII.  ORGANIZATIONS  PROMOTING  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

1.  The  Illinois  Natural  History  Society 

In  June,  1858, the  Illinois  Natural  History  Society  was 
organized  by  some  of  the  leading  scientists  of  the  state  for  the 
purpose  of  conducting  a scientific  survey  of  the  state  "in  order 
to  afford  new  sources  of  valuable  knowledge  to  our  citizen8.,,  It 
was  stated  as  the  aim  of  the  Society  11  to  carry  on  this  work  (sci- 
entific survey)  until  completed,  and  to  establish  a Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  the  State  Normal  University,  comprising  every 
species  of  plants,  birds,  shells,  fishes,  insects,  quadrupeds, 
minerals  and  fossils,  found  in  Illinois,  together  with  such  col- 
lections from  the  various  parts  of  the  world  as  will  assist  our 
youth  in  gaining  a knowledge  of  the  general  studies  of  Nature."1 

"We  have  over  fifty  species  of  quadrupeds,  three  hundred 
of  birds,  one  hundred  of  reptiles,  nearly  two  hundred  of  fishes, 
and  thousands  of  insects,  mollusks,  etc.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
the  Society,  as  scon  as  its  condition  will  permit  to  publish  re- 
ports containing  descriptions  of  the  various  orders  of  Animal 
and  Vegetable  life — -or,  a complete  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Illinois— 
a copy  of  which  should  be  within  the  reach  of  every  parent,  teach- 
er and  pupil  in  our  State," 

"By  establishing  the  Museum  of  the  Natural  History  So- 
ciety at  the  State  Normal  University,  it  becomes  directly  avail- 
able for  the  purpose  of  instruction.  And  since  students  in  at- 

1.  State  Superintendent's  Report,  1857-58,  p.  403. 


. 


. 


■ 


. 


73 


tendance  are  from  all  parts  of  the  State,  they  will  each  have  an 
opportunity  of  studying  the  Natural  History,  not  only  of  his  own, 
but  all  other  sections  of  Illinois.  The  scientific  survey  now  in 
vigorous  operation  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  a direct  auxili- 
ary to  the  educational  and  agricultural  interests  of  the  Prairie 
State. » 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Illinois  Natural  History  So- 
ciety to  distribute  to  the  public  schools  of  the  state  "such  of 
its  duplicates  as  were  not  used  for  exchange."  Many  thousand 
specimens  were  thus  furnished  gratuitously  to  schools  throughout 
the  state  and  probably  served  a valuable  purpose  in  increasing  an 
interest  in  the  natural  sciences.  The  results,  however,  did  not 
measure  up  to  the  expectations  of  those  who  inaugurated  the  dis- 
tribution. In  many  schools  the  specimens  were  not  properly  cared 
for  and  were  soon  destroyed.  Many  teachers  did  not  know  how  to 
use  such  collections  in  an  effective  way  in  their  teaching.  It 
was  reported,  too,  that  "the  distribution  created  the  impression 
that  natural  history  specimens  might  be  had  for  the  asking  and 
there  was  not  sufficient  incentive  for  schools  to  collect  and  pre- 
pare specimens  for  themselves."  The  Illinois  Natural  History 
Society  became  inactive  and  gave  place  to  a new  organization  called 
the  High  School  and  College  Association  of  Natural  History. 

1 

2.  High  School  and  College  Association  of  Natural  History 

After  the  Illinois  Natural  History  Society  ceased  its 

1.  State  Superintendent’s  Report,  1873-74,  p.  143. 


. 


. 

■ 


. 


. 
. 


. 


74 


activities  a new  society  to  carry  on  and  extend  the  work  under- 
taken by  the  old  organization  was  planned.  After  considerable 
correspondence  in  the  Autumn  of  1873  a number  of  persons  interested 
in  natural  history  were  invited  to  meet  at  Bloomington  during  the 
session  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  the  Christman  holi- 
days. "A  large  and  earnest  meeting  of  teachers"  was  held  and 
after  an  "animated  discussion  the  new  society  was  formally  orga- 
nized under  the  name  of  the  School  and  College  Association  of 
Natural  History  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  The  purpose  of  the  new 
organization  was  given  out  was  in  many  ways  similar  to  that  of  the 
old  society.  The  purpose  was  "first, to  collect,  study  and  exchange 
specimens  in  natural  history,  and  to  contribute  to  a natural  his- 
tory survey  of  the  State;  second,  to  form  a state  museum;  third,  to 
obtain  for  the  schools  with  which  its  members  are  connected,  suit- 
able cabinets  of  specimens  for  study  and  reference;  fourth,  to  en- 
courage and  assist  the  rational  study  of  nature  by  the  pupils  of 
our  schools." 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  High  School  and  College  Associ- 
ation a notable  vacation  school  of  natural  history  was  held  at 
Normal,  Illinois,  in  July  and  August,  1875.  This  school  was  mod- 
eled in  some  ways  after  Agassiz's  noted  school  at  Penikese.  The 
instructors  in  this  school  were  Professor  S.  A.  Forbes,  of  the 
State  Normal  University;  Professor  B.  G.  Wilder,  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity; Professor  W,  S.  Barnard,  Ph.D. , Professor  T.  J.  Burrill , 
of  the  Illinois  Industrial  University;  Professor  Cactus  Thomas, 

State  Entomologist;  and  Dr.  J.  S.  Sewell,  of  the  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity. The  attendance  was  limited  to  fifty  students  but  within 


75 


that  limit  was  opened  to  the  teachers  of  the  state.  "The  work 
was  definitely  planned  beforehand  to  meet  what  seemed  to  be  the 
most  urgent  needs  of  the  teachers  of  the  state,  and  the  courses 
of  study  thus  laid  down  were  adhered  to  throughout.  While  the 
leading  idea  was  that  of  method , and  the  leading  object  to  give 
practice  in  the  peculiar  processes  of  scientific  investigation, 
it  was  not  forgotten  that,  to  the  average  teacher,  a general 
knowledge  of  the  whole  is  of  more  value  than  a special  knowledge 
of  a very  little.  The  specimens  selected  for  study  were,  there- 
f°rej  typical  ones,  and  the  dissections  and  examinations  were 


so  planned  and  conducted  that  the  facts  demonstrated  were  true,  not 
of  the  species  or  genus  only,  but  of  the  whole  class  or  sub-king- 
doms, or  else  notable  exceptions  to  general  statements  about 
these  larger  groups." 


"The  laboratory  work  was  made,  throughout,  the  basis 
of  the  course,  and  the  lectures  were  designed  chiefly  to  explain 
and  complete  the  knowledge  gained  with  the  scalpel  and  the  micro- 
scope. " 

"The  class  was  divided  into  sections,  each  section  work- 
ing 'in  concert'  on  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time  under  the 
guidance  of  an  instructor,  and  the  programmes  were  so  constructed 
that  each  student  might  do  the  work  of  the  entire  course. " 

This  school  undoubtedly  had  an  important  influence  in 
improving  science  instruction  in  the  state  and  in  extending  the 
laboratory  method  of  instruction.  These  vacation  schools  were 
continued  for  several  summers.  Professor  Forbes  reports  in  the 
State  Superintendent's  Report  for  1877-1878  that  "vacation  classes 
are  organized  each  year  for  systematic  field  and.  laboratory  work. 


. 


. 


76 

and  have  thus  far  met  with  good  success.  They  are  intended  for 
teachers  and  specialists,  of  which  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  are 
convened  each  summer." 

3.  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History1 

The  Museum  began  under  the  direction  of  the  old  State 
Natural  History  Society  was  transferred  to  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, the  official  title  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  State 
Normal  University,  in  1871.  From  the  State  Board  of  Education  it 
received  the  name  Illinois  Museum  of  Natural  History.  In  a set  of 
resolutions  adopted  in  1875  by  the  State  Board  they  say,  "We  re- 
gard the  Museum  as  a State  Institution,  devoted  to  the  prosecution 
of  a natural  history  survey  of  the  State  - - - and  we  consider  it 
an  important  part  of  its  work  to  supply  collections  of  specimens  to 
public  schools,  - - - and  especially  to  provide  all  needed  facili- 
ties for  the  instruction  of  teachers  in  natural  history,  and  in  the 
most  approved  and  successful  methods  of  teaching  same." 

A law  passed  in  1877  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a 
State  Museum  at  Springfield.  Much  material  from  the  old  museum  at 
Normal  was  transferred  to  the  State  Museum  at  Springfield.  The  old 
museum  was  then  changed  into  a State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History 
under  which  name  it  has  continued  to  the  present  time.  This  change 
of  name  indicates  to  some  extent  the  change  from  the  old  museum 
point  of  view  in  the  teaching  of  natural  science  to  the  newer  labo- 
ratory point  of  view.  One  function  of  the  State  Laboratory  of  Natu- 
ral History  at  the  time  of  its  origin  was  to  collect,  preserve,  and 
classify  botanical  and  zoological  specimens  for  the  State  Museum 

1.  S.  A.  Forbes,  The  Illinois  State  Laboratory  of  Natural 
History,  p.  61. 


. 


. 


1 


. 


. . 


77 


at  Springfield.  In  1883,  Professor  Forbes  who  was  director  of  the 
State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History  was  appointed  to  the  office 
of  State  Entomologist.  In  1884  the  office  of  the  Director  of  the 
State  Laboratory  and  State  Entomologist  was  transferred  from  the 
State  Normal  University  at  Normal  to  the  State  University  at  Ur- 
bana  where  it  has  remained  to  the  present  time.  In  1884  the 
State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History  by  a joint  arrangement  with 
the  State  University  established  a biological  station  on  the  Il- 
linois River  where  much  valuable  research  work  has  been  done. 

The  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History  has  throughout  its  history 
been  an  important  center  for  the  training  of  the  science  teachers 
of  Illinois.  It  has  further  rendered  a valuable  service  to  sci- 
ence instruction  in  the  state  by  preparing  and  distributing  many 
pamphlets  and  bulletins  on  the  plant  and  animal  life  of  the  state. 

The  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History  under  the  pro- 
vision of  the  Civil  Administrative  Code  passed  by  the  state  legis- 
lature in  1817  has  been  merged  with  the  State  Entomologist's  of- 
fice into  a division  called  the  Natural  History  Survey  under  the 
Department  of  Registration  and  Education.  The  new  division  thus 
formed  includes  the  functions  of  its  predecessors  with  a few  ad- 
ditions. A notable  addition  to  its  functions  is  that  of  making 
a forest  survey  of  the  state. 

4.  The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools 

The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary 
Schools  has  exerted  a strong  influence  toward  improving  the  high 
schools  of  Illinois.  Representatives  from  a few  colleges  and  sec- 


. 


. 


' 


78 


ondary  schools  met  at  Northwestern  University,  March  29,  1895,  and 
decided  to  launch  such  an  organization.  The  first  regular  meeting 
was  held  April  3 and  4,  189S,  at  the  university  of  Chicago.  The 
aim  of  the  organization  has  been  expressed  as,  "First,  to  bring 
about  a better  acquaintance,  and  keener  sympathy,  and  a heartier 
cooperation  between  the  colleges  and  secondary  schools  of  this 
territory. 

It  was  the  original  intention  to  hold  meetings  largely 
for  discussion  of  topics  of  common  interest.  However,  in  1901, 
Lean  S.  A.  Forbes  of  the  University  of  Illinois  read  a paper  on 
"The  Desirability  of  so  Federating  the  North  Central  Colleges 
and  Universities  as  to  secure  Essentially  Uniform  or  at  least 
Equivalent  Entrance  Requirements."  As  an  outcome  of  the  dis- 
cussion of  Dean  Forbes’  paper  it  was  decided  to  appoint  a Com- 
mission on  Accredited  Schools.  The  Commission  on  Accredited 
Schools  when  appointed  was  assigned  as  duties: 

1.  To  define  and  describe  unit  courses  of  study. 

2.  To  act  as  a standing  committee  on  uniformity 
of  admission  requirements. 

3.  To  secure  uniformity  and  economy  in  high  school 
inspection. 

4.  To  prepare  a list  of  accredited  schools. 

The  Commission  appointed  made  the  first  report  at  the 
Cleveland  Meeting,  March  28  and  29,  1902.  The  report  was  adopted 
and  "cannot  but  be  regarded  as  making  an  era  in  the  educational 
history  of  the  North  Central  States."  The  report  of  the  Commis- 


1.  Twenty-Seventh  Report  of  the  North  Central  Associa- 
tion, p.  4. 


. 


. 


. 


. 


. 

. 


. 

- 

. 

. 


. 


79 


sion  set  high  standards  for  high  school  work  which  have  been  re- 
vised and  added  to  by  the  reports  of  succeeding  years.  These 
standards  have  been  discussed  already  under  Science  Teaching  in 
Public  Secondary  Schools  Since  1892.  The  report  of  the  Committee 
on  accredited  high  schools  each  year  constitutes  " an  honor  list 
for  the  North  Central  States."  Recently  the  North  Central  Associ- 
ation has  submitted  a list  of  approved  colleges  and  universities. 
This  list  has  tended  materially  to  improve  the  grade  of  work  done 
in  the  colleges , particularly  the  smaller  ones.  "The  Association 
is  the  most  generally  recognized  standardizing  agency  in  the  North 
Central  States — if,  indeed,  it  does  not  rank  first  in  prestige 
in  the  entire  United  States."^ 


p . 4. 


1.  Twenty-Seventh  Report,  North  Central  Association, 


_ 


. ■ I ; 


. 


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■ 


80 


VIII.  CONCLUSION 

As  we  view  in  retrospect  the  history  of  the  century  of 
scientific  development  covered  by  this  discussion  we  are  impressed 
by  the  evident  fact  that  great  changes  both  in  the  subject  matter 
of  science  and  the  methods  of  science  teaching  have  taken  place. 
While  changes  in  methods  of  teaching  have  received  primary  con- 
sideration, we  would  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  new  and  im- 
portant scientific  discoveries  from  time  to  time  stimulated  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  the  public,  and  consequently  influenced 
science  teaching,  just  now  developments  in  the  wireless  field  are 
serving  as  a stimulus  to  increase  interest  in  the  study  of  physics. 
Greater  changes  have  probably  taken  place  and  more  real  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  field  of  science  than  in  any  of  the  other 
large  fields  of  knowledge. 

The  progress  of  science  instruction  in  the  elementary 
schools  has  been  on  the  whole  the  least  satisfactory  of  any  of 
the  divisions  of  our  educational  system.  A few  systems  of  ele- 
mentary schools  have  well  organized  courses  of  science  instruc- 
tion. However,  a large  number,  probably  a majority  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  the  state  make  no  provision  for  science  in- 
struction beyond  the  physiology  and  hygiene  .required  by  statute 
to  be  taught.  There  is  a strong  need  of  a revival  of  interest  in 
science  instruction  in  our  elementary  schools.  Scientific  facts 
constitute  just  as  important  a part  of  our  common  heritage  and 
are  just  as  important  in  adjusting  ourselves  to  our  environment 


- 1 


■ 


81 


as  are  the  facts  of  geography  and  history  commonly  taught.  The 
elementary  curriculum  needs  to  be  reorganized  carefully  and  thor- 
oughly with  elementary  science,  including  physiology  and  hygiene 
as  required  by  law,  as  one  of  the  basal  sybjects  in  the  upper 
grades.  With  teachers  properly  trained  and  properly  interested  in 
such  work  the  results  would  be  a marked  improvement  over  present 
achievements  in  our  elementary  schools.  There  would  then  probably 
be  no  need  for  a general  science  course  in  the  first  year  of  the 
high  school. 

The  most  important  fact  in  the  development  of  science 
instruction  in  the  high  school  has  been  the  introduction  of  the 
laboratory  method  of  instruction.  The  early  courses  were  largely 
short  informational  courses  with  some  illustrative  experiments 
performed  by  the  teacher.  It  is  true  that  this  work  was  often  times 
of  a more  interesting  character  to  the  pupil  than  some  of  the  work 
that  superseded  it.  However,  this  lack  of  interest  was  largely 
due  to  the  organization  of  the  subject  matter  and  the  method  of 
presenting  it  or  of  introducing  the  pupil  to  it.  Methods  of  labo- 
ratory instruction  were  introduced  into  the  high  school  from  the 
college  and  often  the  work  was  not  sufficiently  adapted  to  the 
ability  and  interests  of  the  high  school  pupils.  Present  day 
methods  are  improving  secondary  science  instruction  through  the 
use  of  projects  and  practical  applications . However,  the  science 
work  in  our  high  schools  is  not  producing  the  results  that  it 
ought  to  produce.  Few  pupils  really  acquire  the  scientific  method 
of  attacking  problems  which  is  generally  acclaimed  as  one  of  the 
principal  ends  to  be  achieved  as  a result  of  science  work.  Few 


. 


. 


- 

' 

. 


persons  who  distinguish  themselves  in  the  line  of  scientific  re- 
search first  acquire  an  interest  in  such  work  in  their  high  school 
courses.  We  need  tc  hold  the  gains  we  have  already  made  in  sec- 
ondary science  teaching  and  strive  to  organize  our  material  and 
present  it  in  such  a way  that  it  will  become  of  more  vital  in- 
terest to  the  pupil  and  have  a stronger  influence  on  his  life. 
Better  teaching  will  help  to  realize  this  ideal. 

The  absence  of  college  or  university  domination  in  the 
early  development  of  high  schools  in  Illinois  is  worthy  of  special 
attention.  It  has  recently  been  stated  and  without  contradiction 
that  all  of  our  high  school  courses  originally  were  handed  down 
to  us  by  the  colleges  and  their  content  from  the  first  has  been 
determined  by  the  college  entrance  requirements.  This  statement 
i6  not  true  of  Illinois  as  far  as  scientific  subjects  were  con- 
cerned. Nowhere  is  there  evidence  that  a single  science  subject 
came  into  the  curriculum  through  college  or  university  prescrip- 
tion. Even  in  the  case  of  general  science  the  last  scientific 
subject  to  be  added  to  the  curriculum  there  was  a long  fight  be- 
fore it  was  finally  recognized  for  entrance  by  the  colleges  and 
universities.  The  wave  of  scientific  interest  that  swept  over 
the  world  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  probably 
reached  a higher  level  in  Illinois  than  in  many  other  places.  The 
sciences  came  into  the  high  school  curriculums  after  this  wave  of 
scientific  interest  because  of  the  popular  demand  for  them. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  introduction  of  the  laboratory 
method  of  science  teaching  may  be  placed  the  movement  for  stand- 
ardization . The  evidence  shows  secondary  education  at  a low  ebb 


. 

. 


. 


. 


* 


83 


in  the  early  nineties.  The  reports  of  the  various  committees  set- 
ting up  definite  standards,  followed  by  the  influence  of  the  variois 
accrediting  agencies  in  securing  the  general  adoption  of  proposed 
standards  accounts  for  the  marked  progress  of  the  past  three  de- 
cades. Without  some  outside  influence  to  insist  on  high  standards 
of  work  the  development  made  would  scarcely  have  been  possible. 

The  universities  and  other  higher  institutions  have 
naturally  been  the  leaders  in  scientific  progress.  Of  these  the 
State  University  has  probably  exerted  the  greatest  influence. 

They  have  through  new  discoveries  extended  the  bounds  of  scientific 
knowledge,  prepared  science  teachers  for  secondary  schools,  se- 
cured the  adoption  of  high  standards  through  their  accrediting 
systems, and  through  friendly  visits  and  mutual  conferences  called 
to  consider  secondary  problems  they  have  encouraged  and  helped 
high  school  teachers  in  the  solution  of  their  own  problems.  They 
have  taken  scientific  discoveries  and  given  practical  application 
to  them,  thus  often  revolutionizing  living  conditions  among  the 
people.  It  is  difficult  properly  to  appraise  the  value  of  the 
universities'  contribution  to  science  and  to  science  teaching. 

We  have  traveled  far  in  the  development  of  science  teach- 
ing in  Illinois  in  the  past  century.  Science  has  proven  that  it  is 
worthy  of  an  important  place  in  all  of  our  school  curriculums. 

Many  of  our  present  standards  are  high  enough.  The  problem  of  the 
future  in  science  teaching  is  to  develop  such  a technique  of  teach- 
ing as  will  insure  that  the  boys  and  girls  will  secure  the  heri- 
tage of  scientific  facts  to  which  they  are  entitled  and  at  the 
same  time  develop  mere  of  the  scientific  attitude  of  mind.  These 


. 


• I- 


. 


84 


have  long  been  the  goals  of  science  teaching  but  seldom  have  they 
been  realized.  It  is  the  problem  and  at  the  same  time  the  oppor- 
tunity for  future  science  teachers  to  work  out  the  ways  and  means 
whereby  these  important  objectives  may  be  more  fully  realized. 


: 

. 


APPENDIX  I 


Some  Early  School  Advertisements 


To  the  Friends  of  Education 
The  subscriber  has  opened  a school  in  Prairie  de  Rocher, 
and  proposes  to  teach  the  most  useful  branches  of  English  education 
viz.  Writing,  Reading,  and  common  Arithmetic.  Also,  English  Gram- 
mar, Geography,  Surveying,  Astronomy,  and  the  Latin  and  Greek  Lan- 
guages. A commodious  and  comfortable  house  has  been  procured,  and 
the  situation  is  undoubtedly  as  healthy  as  any  in  the  American  Bot- 
tom. Good  board  can  be  obtained  on  moderate  terms  - and  I can  as- 
sure those  disposed  to  patronize  the  school,  that  no  attention  will 
be  wanting  on  my  part,  which  will  be  necessary  to  progressive  moral 
and  literary  improvement  of  my  pupils. 


Benjamin  H.  Sturges. 

Prairie  de  Rocher,  Aug.  36,  1616. 

(From  Western  Intelligencer,  Aug.  28,  1816.) 


To  the  Patrons  of  Literature 
J.  Cheek, 

Informs  the  friends  and  the  guardians  of  erudition  that 
he  has  opened  a School  in  the  town  of  Kaskaskia,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth,  in  the  different  departments  of  English  literature. 
He  will  extend  the  sphere  of  instruction,  so  as  to  include  the  fol- 
lowing sciences,  viz.  Reading,  Writing,  Orthography,  Arithmetic, 
English  Grammar,  Geography,  History,  Rhetorick,  Composition,  Elocu- 


. 


. 


' 


. 


86 

tion,  etc.  He  flatters  himself  that  from  hie  attention  to  the 
morals  and  scientific  avocations  of  his  pupils,  he  will  share  no  in- 
considerable portion  of  the  patronage  of  a judicious  and  discerning 
people. 

Kaskaskia,  Nov.  3,  1817. 

(from  Western  Intelligencer.) 

Education 

Mr.  Cross  respectfully  informs  the  citizens  of  Kaskaskia 
and  its  vicinage,  that  he  intends,  should  sufficient  patronage  be 
afforded,  to  open  a School  in  this  town',  for  the  instruction  of 
youth,  in  Orthography,  Orthoepy,  Reading,  Writing,  English  Grammar, 
Arithmetic,  and  Elocution. 

Scholars  who  shall  graduate  in  these  branches  of  tuition, 
will  be  instructed  in  the  rudiments  of  History,  Geography,  Natural 
Philosophy,  and  Mathematics. 

Mr.  Cross  will  endeavor  to  instill  into  the  minds  of  his 
scholars,  the  vital  importance  of  sound  moral  principle,  and  correct 
manners,  which  he  will  elucidate,  by  a regular  course  of  lectures, 
every  Saturday,  as  soon  as  he  can  procure  the  necessary  appendages 
his  school  will  be  Lancasterian.  No  advance  payment  will  be  requir- 
ed, but  a punctual  compliance  with  the  terms  of  subscription,  at 
the  expiration  of  each  quarter,  is  confidently  calculated  upon. 

Mr.  Cross  will  this  evening,  in  the  Representative  cham- 
ber, give  various  specimens  of  Elocution,  instructive  and  amusing, 
original  and  selected.  Tickets  to  be  had  at  Burr  and  Christy's 
Hotel,  and  at  this  office. 

Dec.  9th,  1818. 

(From  Western  Intelligencer,  Jan.  13,  1519.) 


. . 


. 


. 

. 


. 

. 


87 

APPENDIX  II 

Course  of  Study  of  Chicago  High  School  in  1872  1 


Year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Algebra 

First 

Year 

Physical  Geography 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography 
and  Physiology 

Latin 

Latin 

Latin 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Natural  History 

Natural  History 
Botany 

Botany  and  Natural 
History 

Second 

Latin 

Latin 

Latin 

Year 

General  History 

General  History 

General  History 

Greek  (Optional  in 

Greek  (Optional 

Greek  (Optional  in 

place  of  one  of 

in  place  of 

place  of  one  of  the 

the  English  branch- 
es. ) 

one  of  the  Eng 
lish  branches) 

English  branches.) 

Trigonometry 

Astronomy 

Trigonometry  and 
Astronomy 

Mechanics 

Physics 

Physics  and  Mechanics 

Third 

Year 

Latin  or  German  or 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German  or 

French 

or  French 

French 

Rhetoric,  English 
Literature 

English  Litera- 
ture 

English  Literature 

Greek  (Optional) 

Greek  \Optional) 

Greek  (Optional) 

Mental  Science 

Mental  Science 
Bookkeeping 

Mental  Science 
Bookkeeping 

Fourth 

Chemistry 

Geology 

Geology  and 
Chemi stry 

Year 

Latin,  German  or 

Latin,  German 

Latin,  German  or 

French 

or  French 

French 

Civil  Government 

Political  Econ- 

Political  Economy 

Greek  (Optional) 

o my 

Greek (Optional) 

Greek  (Optional) 

Composition , Drawing  and  Reading  through  course. 


1.  Eighteenth  Chicago  Report,  p.  220. 


88 

Those  in  preparation  for  College  who  desire  it,  can  omit 
the  English  branches,  except  the  requisite  Mathematics,  and  com- 
plete the  course  in  three  yeevrs. 

Pupils  form  the  High  School  Classes  will  commence  with 
the  studies  of  the  second  year,  taking  German  instead  of  Latin. 


Course  of  Study  of  Chicago  High  School  in  1883 ^ 
Full  Course  Four  Years 


Year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Algebra 

First 

Year 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography 
Physiology 

Physical  Geography 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

History 

History 

History 

Second 

Year 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Natural  History 

Natural  History 
Botany 

Botany 

Natural  Philosophy 

Natural  Philosophy 

Natural  Philosophy 

Third 

Rhetoric 

English  Literature 

English  Literature 

Year 

Latin,  German  or 

Latin,  German  or 

Latin,  German  or 

French 

French 

French 

Chemistry 

Chemistry 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 

Astronomy 

Astronomy 

Civil  Government 

Geology 

Political  Economy 

Fourth 

Year 

Latin,  German  or 
French 

Mental  Science 
Latin,  German  or 

Latin,  German  or 
French 

Study  of  Authors 

French 

Reviews 

Rev i ews 

Is  Twenty-ninth  Chicago  Report,  p.  21. 


89 

1.  Composition,  Declamation  and  Select  Headings  through 
the  course. 

2.  Drawing  and  pinging  optional  through  the  course. 

Greek  elective  after  the  first  year. 

Bookkeeping  optional  during  the  last  year. 


Classical  Course  Three  Years 


Year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

First 

Year 

Algebra 
Latin  Reader 
Greek 

Algebra 
Latin  Reader 
Greek 

Algebra 

Latin  - Caesar 

Greek 

Second 

Year 

Geometry 
Latin  - Caesar 

Greek  - Anabasis 

Geometry 

Latin  - Cicero  and 
Caesar 

Greek  - Anabasis 

Trigonometry 
Latin  - Cicero 

Greek  - Anabasis 

Latin  - Virgil 

Latin  - Virgil 

Latin  - Virgil 

Latin  Composition 

Latin  Composition 

Latin  Composition 

Third 

Year 

Greek  Iliad 

Greek  Iliad 

Greek 

Greek  Composition 

Greek  Composit ion 

Reviews 

Reviews 

1.  Composition,  Declamation  and  Select  Reading  through 


the  course. 

2.  Drawing  and  Singing  optional  through  the  course. 


90 


APPENDIX  III 

LEGISLATION  AFFECTING  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 
Extracts  from  School  Law  of  1872 
Section  50.  No  teacher  shall  be  authorized  to  teach  a 
common  school  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  who  is  not  of  good 
moral  character,  and  qualified  to  teach  orthography,  reading  in 
English,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  modern  geogra- 
phy, the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences,  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  physiology,  and  the  laws  of  health.  It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  County  Superintendent  to  grant  certificates  to 
such  persons  as  may,  upon  due  examination  be  found  to  possess 
the  necessary  qualifications.  ------  Said  certificates  shall 

be  of  two  grades:  those  of  the  first  grade,  shall  be  valid  for 
two  years;  those  of  the  second  grade,  for  one  year." 

Extract  from  Amended  Law  of  1874 
Section  50.  No  teacher  shall  be  authorized  to  teach  a 
common  school  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  who  is  not  of  good 
moral  character  and  who  does  not  possess  a certificate  as  required 
by  this  section.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  County  Superintend- 
ent to  grant  certificates  to  such  persons  as  may,  upon  due  ex- 
amination, be  found  qualified;  and  said  certificates  shall  be  of 
two  grades:  those  of  the  first  grade  shall  be  valid  for  two  years, 
and  shall  certify  that  the  person  to  which  such  certificate  is 
given  is  qualified  to  teach  orthography,  reading  in  English,  pen- 
manship, arithmetic,  English  grammar,  modern  geography,  the  ele- 
ments of  the  natural  sciences,  the  history  of  the  United  States, 


* 


: 

* 


91 


physiology  and  the  laws  of  health.  Certificates  of  the  second 
grade  shall  he  valid  for  one  year,  and  shall  certify  that  the 
person  to  whom  such  certificate  is  given  is  qualified  to  teach 
orthography,  reading  in  English,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  English 
grammar,  modern  geography,  and  the  history  of  the  United  States. 


Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  Public  Schools 
Law  of  1889 

» 

An  Act  relating  to  the  study  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
in  the  Public  Schools. 

Section  I.  3e  it.  enac t ed  by  the  People  of  the  State  of 
Illinois  , represented  in  the  General  Assembly:  That  the  proper 

legal  school  authorities  shall  have  power,  and  it  shall  be  their 
duty,  to  have  all  pupils  of  suitable  age  in  schools  of  Illinois, 
supported  by  public  money  or  under  state  control,  instructed  in 
physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of 
alcoholic  beverages,  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system. 

Section  2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  per- 
son to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  Illinois,  after  July,  1890, 
who  has  not  passed  a satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system. 


. 


,i  - 


. 


■ 


: - 


. 


. 


92 


Requiring  and  Regulating  the  Study  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene 

An  Act  to  amend  "An  Act  relating  to  the  study  of  physi- 
ology and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools,"  approved  June  1,  1889, 
in  force  July  1,  1889.  Approved  June  9,  1897,  in  force  July  1, 
1897. 

Section  I.  Be  it_  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of 
Illinois  represented  in  the  General  Assembly:  That  "An  act  relat- 

ing to  the  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools," 
approved  June  1,  1889,  in  force  July  1,  1889,  be  amended  so  as  to 
read  as  follows: 

That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics 
and  their  effects  on  the  human  system  shall  be  taught  in  connec- 
tion with  the  various  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene  as 
thoroughly  as  are  other  branches  in  all  schools  under  State  con- 
trol, or  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money,  and  also  in 
all  other  schools  connected  with  reformatory  institutions. 

All  pupils  in  the  above  mentioned  schools  below  the 
second  year  of  the  high  schools  and  above  the  third  year  of 
school  work  computing  from  the  beginning  of  the  lowest  primary 
year,  or  in  corresponding  classes  of  ungraded  schools,  shall  be 
taught  and  shall  study  this  subject  every  year  from  suitable 
text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  for  not  less  than  four  les- 
sons a week  for  ten  or  more  weeks  of  each  year,  and  must  pass  the 
same  tests  in  this  as  in  other  studies. 

In  all  schools  above  mentioned  all  pupils  in  the  lowest 
three  primary  school  years,  or  in  corresponding  classes  in  un- 
graded schools,  shall  each  year  be  instructed  in  this  subject 


. 


: 


. 

■ 


. 


S3 


orally  for  not  less  than  three  lessons  a week  for  ten  weeks  in  each 
year,  by  teachers  using  text-books  adapted  for  such  oral  instruc- 
tion as  a guide  and  standard. 

The  local  school  authorities  shall  provide  needed  facili- 
ties and  definite  time  and  place  for  this  branch  in  the  regular 
course  of  study. 

The  text-books  in  the  pupils’  hands  shall  be  graded  to 
the  capacities  of  the  fourth  year,  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high 
school  pupils,  or  to  corresponding  classes  as  found  in  ungraded 
schools , 

For  students  below  high  school  grade  such  text-books 
shall  give  at  least  one-fifth  their  space,  and  for  students  of  high 
school  grade  shall  give  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  the  nature 
and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics.  The  pages  on 
this  subject,  in  a separate  chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book,  shall 
not  be  counted  in  determining  the  minimum. 

Section  II.  In  all  normal  schools,  teachers'  training 
classes  and  teachers'  institutes,  adequate  time  and  attention  shall 
be  given  to  instruction  in  the  best  methods  of  teaching  this  branch, 
and  no  teacher  shall  be  licensed  who  has  not  passed  a satisfactory 
examination  in  this  subject  and  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it. 

Any  school  officer  or  officers  who  shall  neglect  or  fail 
to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  forfeit  and  pay 
for  each  offense  the  sum  of  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more 
than  twenty-five  dollars.  From  Illinois  School  Law.  1898  edition. 


. 


/ 


94 


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"A  history  of  Shurtleff  College,  the  oldest  education- 
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Forbes,  Stephen  Alfred:  History  and  Status  of  Public  School  Sci- 

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Presidential  address  read  before  the  Science  Section 
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Brooks,  John  F. , State  Superintendent:  Manual  of  Instructions 

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Crook,  A.  R.  History  of  the  Illinois  State  Museum  of  Natural 
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